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Meta-Analysis
. 2025 Jan 13;1(1):CD004307.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004307.pub7.

Incentives for smoking cessation

Caitlin Notley  1 , Sarah Gentry  1 , Jonathan Livingstone-Banks  2 , Linda Bauld  3 , Rafael Perera  2 , Monserrat Conde  2 , Jamie Hartmann-Boyce  2   4
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Incentives for smoking cessation

Caitlin Notley et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Financial incentives (money, vouchers, or self-deposits) can be used to positively reinforce smoking cessation. They may be used as one-off rewards, or in various schedules to reward steps towards sustained smoking abstinence (known as contingency management). They have been used in workplaces, clinics, hospitals, and community settings, and to target particular populations. This is a review update. The previous version was published in 2019.

Objectives: Primary To assess the long-term effects of incentives and contingency management programmes for smoking cessation in mixed and pregnant populations. Secondary To assess the long-term effects of incentives and contingency management programmes for smoking cessation in mixed populations, considering whether incentives were offered at the final follow-up point. To assess the difference in outcomes for pregnant populations, considering whether rewards were contingent on abstinence or guaranteed.

Search methods: For this update, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, and two trials registers on 2 November 2023, and the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Specialised Register on March 2023, together with reference checking, citation searching, and contact with study authors to identify additional studies.

Selection criteria: We considered only randomised controlled trials (RCTs), allocating individuals, workplaces, groups within workplaces, or communities to smoking cessation incentive schemes or control conditions. We included studies in a mixed-population setting (e.g. community-, work-, clinic- or institution-based), studies with specific populations (e.g. those with diagnosed mental health conditions), and studies in pregnant people who smoke.

Data collection and analysis: We used standard Cochrane methods. The primary outcome measure in the mixed-population studies was abstinence from smoking at longest follow-up (at least six months from the start of the intervention). In the trials of pregnant people, we used abstinence from smoking measured at the longest follow-up, and at least to the end of the pregnancy. Where available, we pooled outcome data using a Mantel-Haenszel random-effects model, with results reported as risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), using adjusted estimates for cluster-randomised trials. We analysed studies carried out in mixed populations separately from those carried out in pregnant populations.

Main results: Forty-eight mixed-population studies met our inclusion criteria, recruiting more than 21,924 participants; 15 of these are new to this version of the review. Studies were set in varying locations, including community settings, clinics or health centres, workplaces, and outpatient drug clinics. We judged eight studies to be at low risk of bias, and 16 to be at high risk of bias, with the remaining 24 studies at unclear risk. Thirty-three of the trials were run in the USA, two in Thailand, one in the Philippines, one in Hong Kong, and one in South Africa. The rest were European. Incentives offered included cash payments, self-deposits, or vouchers for goods and groceries, offered directly or collected and redeemable online. The pooled RR for quitting with incentives at longest follow-up (six months or more) compared with controls was 1.52 (95% CI 1.33 to 1.74; I2 = 23%; 39 studies, 18,303 participants; high-certainty evidence). Results were not sensitive to the exclusion of seven studies that offered an incentive for cessation at long-term follow-up (result excluding those studies: RR 1.46, 95% CI 1.23 to 1.73; I2 = 26%; 32 studies, 15,082 participants), suggesting the impact of incentives continues for at least some time after incentives cease (at least six months). For this update, we included an adjusted analysis incorporating three cluster-RCTs. The pooled odds ratio was 1.57 (95% CI 1.37 to 1.79; I2 = 30%; 43 studies, 23,960 participants; high-certainty evidence). Although not always clearly reported, the total financial amount of incentives varied considerably between trials, from zero (self-deposits), to a range of between 45 US dollars (USD) and USD 1185. There was no clear difference in effect between trials offering low or high total value of incentives, nor those encouraging redeemable self-deposits. We ran an updated exploratory meta-regression and found no significant association between the outcome and the total value of the financial incentive (P = 0.963). Any such indirect comparison is particularly crude in this context, due to differences in the cultural significance of financial amounts (e.g. USD 50 might have different significance in different contexts). We included 14 studies of 4314 pregnant people (11 conducted in the USA, one in France, and two in the UK). We judged four studies to be at low risk of bias, three at high risk of bias, and eight at unclear risk. When pooled, the 13 trials with usable data delivered a risk ratio at longest follow-up (up to 48 weeks postpartum) of 2.13 (95% CI 1.58 to 2.86; I2 = 31%; 13 studies, 3942 participants; high-certainty evidence), in favour of incentives.

Authors' conclusions: Overall, our conclusion from this latest review update remains that there is high-certainty evidence that incentives improve smoking cessation rates at long-term follow-up in mixed population studies. The evidence demonstrates that the effectiveness of incentives is sustained even when the last follow-up occurs after the withdrawal of incentives. There is also now high-certainty evidence that incentive schemes conducted amongst pregnant people who smoke improve smoking cessation rates, both at the end of pregnancy and postpartum. This represents a change from the previous update in which we rated this evidence as moderate certainty. Current and future research might more precisely explore differences between trials offering low or high cash incentives and self-incentives (deposits), within a variety of smoking populations, focusing on low- and middle-income countries where the burden of tobacco use remains high.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01526265 NCT03163056.

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Conflict of interest statement

CN: has received an honorarium from Vox media company for filming a 'nicotine explainer' on the role of nicotine in addiction. CN has given responses to press articles to correct misinterpretations and to reassert the importance of remaining focused on the evidence. CN is a member of the advisory council for 'Action on Smoking and Health' (ASH). None of these are deemed a conflict of interest. SG: none known. JLB: is an associate editor for Cochrane. He was not involved in the editorial process for this review. He has no conflicts of interest. LB: is Co‐Chair of the Smoking in Pregnancy Challenge Group (a network of professionals working to reduce smoking in pregnancy in England) that has indicated support for incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy. She is also fiduciary Officer for Cancer Research UK and Diabetes UK. LB is co‐author of one of the trials included in the review (Tappin 2015) and some of the studies cited as supporting evidence in the Background and Discussion sections (Berlin 2018; Hoddinott 2014). LB did not make study eligibility decisions about, extract data from, carry out the risk of bias assessment for, or perform GRADE assessments of the included Tappin study. RP: none known. MC: is supported by Cancer Research UK (Charity) in other research projects. She holds a Proposal Editor role for Cochrane. She was not involved in the editorial process of this review. She has undertaken commissioned work for the World Health Organization (WHO) unrelated to the topic of this review. None of these were deemed a conflict of interest. JHB: writes regularly for The Conversation and is interviewed in the media on the topic of smoking. JHB holds an Editorial role for Cochrane. She was not involved in the editorial process of this review.

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References

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Secades‐Villa 2022 {published data only}
    1. NCT03551704. Smoking cessation treatment for substance use dependents. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03551704 (first received 11 June 2018).
    1. Secades-Villa R, Aonso-Diego G, González-Roz A. A randomized controlled trial of contingency management for smoking cessation in substance use treatment patients. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology 2022;22(3):100314. - PMC - PubMed
Shoptaw 2002 {published data only}
    1. Shoptaw S, Rotheram-Fuller E, Yang X, Frosch D, Nahom D, Jarvik ME, et al. Smoking cessation in methadone maintenance. Addiction 2002;97(10):1317-28. - PubMed
Tappin 2015 {published data only}
    1. Boyd KA, Briggs AH, Bauld L, Sinclair L, Tappin D. Are financial incentives cost-effective to support smoking cessation during pregnancy? Addiction 0126;111(2):360-70. - PubMed
    1. Tappin D, Bauld L, Purves D, Boyd K, Sinclair L, MacAskill S, et al. Financial incentives for smoking cessation during pregnancy: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2014;384(Suppl 2):S4. - PubMed
    1. Tappin D, Bauld L, Purves D, Boyd K, Sinclair L, MacAskin S, et al, Cessation in Pregnancy Incentives Trial (CPIT) team. Financial incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2015;350(27 January 2015):h134. - PubMed
    1. Tappin DM, Bauld L, Tannahill C, De Caestecker L, Radley A, McConnachie A, et al. The Cessation in Pregnancy Incentives Trial (CPIT): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2012;13:113. - PMC - PubMed
Tappin 2022 {published data only}
    1. Tappin D, Sinclair L, Kee F, McFadden M, Robinson-Smith L, Mitchell A, et al. Effect of financial voucher incentives provided with UK stopsmoking services on the cessation of smoking in pregnantwomen (CPIT III): pragmatic, multicentre, single blinded, phase 3, randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2022;379:e071522. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2022-071522] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Tevyaw 2009 {published data only}
    1. Tevyaw TO, Colby SM, Tidey JW, Kahler CW, Rohsenow DJ, Barnett NP, et al. Contingency management and motivational enhancement: a randomized clinical trial for college students. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11(6):739-49. - PMC - PubMed
Tuten 2012 {published data only}
    1. Tuten M, Fitzsimona H, Chisolm MS, Nuzzo PA, Jones HE. Contingent incentives reduce cigarette smoking among pregnant, methadone-maintained women: results of an initial feasibility and efficacy randomized clinical trial. Addiction 2012;107(10):1868-77. - PMC - PubMed
Van den Brand 2018 {published data only}
    1. NTR5657. Incentives for workplace smoking cessation. www.trialregister.nl/trial/5537 (first received 27 January 2016).
    1. Van den Brand FA, Nagelhout GE, Winkens B, Evers SM, Kotz D, Chavannes NH, et al. The effect of financial incentives on top of behavioral support on quit rates in tobacco smoking employees: study protocol of a cluster-randomized trial. BMC Public Health 2016;16(1):1056. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Van den Brand FA, Nagelhout, GE, Winkens B, Chavannes NH, Van Schayck OC. Effect of a workplace-based group training programme combined with financial incentives on smoking cessation: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet Public Health 2018;3(11):e536-44. - PubMed
Van Schayck 2018 {published data only}
    1. Van Schayck O. Financial incentives combined with a smoking cessation group training programme increase abstinence rates in employees: a cluster randomised controlled trial. European Respiratory Journal 2018;52(Suppl 62):OA5226.
Volpp 2006 {published data only}
    1. Volpp KG, Levy AG, Asch DA, Berline JA, Murphy JJ, Gomez A, et al. A randomized controlled trial of financial incentives for smoking cessation. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 2006;15(1):12-8. - PubMed
Volpp 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kim A, Kamyab K, Zhu J, Volpp K. Why are financial incentives not effective at influencing some smokers to quit? Results of a process evaluation of a worksite trial assessing the efficacy of financial incentives for smoking cessation. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2011;53(1):62-7. - PubMed
    1. Kim AE, Towers A, Renaud J, Zhu J, Shea JA, Galvin R, et al. Application of the RE-AIM framework to evaluate the impact of a worksite-based financial incentive intervention for smoking cessation. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2012;54(5):610-4. - PubMed
    1. Troxel AB, Volpp KG. Effectiveness of financial incentives for longer-term smoking cessation: evidence of absence or absence of evidence? American Journal of Health Promotion 2012;26(4):204-7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Volpp KG, Das A. Comparative effectiveness - thinking beyond medication A versus medication B. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;361(4):331-3. - PubMed
    1. Volpp KG, Galvin R. Reward-based incentives for smoking cessation: how a carrot became a stick. JAMA 2014;311(9):909-10. - PMC - PubMed
White 2013 {published data only}
    1. White JS, Dow WH, Rungruanghiranya S. Commitment contracts and team incentives: a randomized controlled trial for smoking cessation in Thailand. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2013;45(5):533-42. [ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01311115] - PMC - PubMed
White 2020 {published data only}
    1. NCT02421224. Social and monetary incentives for smoking cessation at large employers (SMILE). clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02421224 (first received 20 April 2015).
    1. White J, Lowenstein C, Srivirojana N, Jampaklay A, Dow W. Incentive programmes for smoking cessation: cluster randomized trial in workplaces in Thailand. BMJ 2020;371:m3797. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Wilson 2023 {published data only}
    1. Wilson S, Blalock D, Young J, Griffin S, Hertzberg J, Calhoun P, et al. Mobile health contingency management for smoking cessation among veterans experiencing homelessness: a comparative effectiveness trial. Preventive Medicine Reports 2023;35:102311. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Windsor 1988 {published data only}
    1. Windsor RA, Lowe JB, Bartlett EE. The effectiveness of a worksite self-help smoking cessation program: a randomized trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1988;11(4):407-21. - PubMed
    1. Windsor RA, Lowe JB. Behavioral impact and cost analysis of a worksite self-help smoking cessation program. Progress in Clinical and Biological Research 1989;392:231-42. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Alessi 2008 {published data only}
    1. Alessi SM, Petry NM, Urso J. Contingency management promotes smoking reduction in residential substance abuse patients. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2008;41:617-22. [Clinicaltrials.gov ID NCT00408265] - PMC - PubMed
Berg 2014 {published data only}
    1. Berg CJ, Stratton E, Sokol M, Santamaria A, Bryant L, Rodriguez R. Novel incentives and messaging in an online college smoking intervention. American Journal of Health Behavior 2014;38(5):668-80. - PMC - PubMed
Bloom 2020 {published data only}
    1. Bloom EL, Hunt L, Tidley J, Ramsey SE. Pilot feasibility trial of dual contingency management for cigarette smoking cessation and weight maintenance among weight-concerned female smokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2020;28(5):609-15. - PMC - PubMed
Correia 2006 {published data only}
    1. Correia CJ, Benson TA. The use of contingency management to reduce cigarette smoking among college students. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2006;14(2):171-9. - PubMed
Cummings 1988 {published data only}
    1. Cummings KM, Hellmann R, Emont SL. Correlates of participation in a worksite stop-smoking contest. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1988;11(3):267-77. - PubMed
De Paul 1989 {published data only}
    1. Jason LA, Lesowitz T, Michaels M, Blitz C, Victors L, Dean L, et al. A worksite smoking cessation intervention involving the media and incentives. American Journal of Community Psychology 1989;17(6):785-99. - PubMed
    1. Salina D, Jason LA, Hedeker D, Kaufman J, Lesondak L, McMahon SD, et al. A follow-up of a media-based, worksite smoking cessation program. American Journal of Community Psychology 1994;22(2):257-71. - PubMed
Donatelle 2000c {published data only}
    1. Donatelle RJ, Prows SL, Champeau D, Hudson D. Using social support, biochemical feedback, and incentives to motivate smoking cessation during pregnancy: comparison of three intervention trials. Poster at American Public Health Association meeting, Boston MA, USA 2000.
Dunn 2008 {published data only}
    1. Dunn KE, Saulsgiver KA, Sigmon SC. Contingency management for behavior change: applications to promote brief smoking cessation among opioid-maintained patients. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2011;19(1):20-30. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Dunn KE, Sigmon SC, Thomas CS, Heil SH, Higgins ST. Voucher-based contingent reinforcement of smoking abstinence among methadone-maintained patients: a pilot study. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2008;41(4):527-38. - PMC - PubMed
Glover 2015 {published data only}
    1. Glover M, Kira A, Walker N, Bauld L. Using incentives to encourage smoking abstinence among pregnant indigenous women? a feasibility study. Maternal and Child Health Journal 2015;19(6):1393-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10995-014-1645-2] [ACTRN12614000520639] - DOI - PubMed
Higgins 2004 {published data only}
    1. Higgins ST, Bernstein IM, Washio Y, Heil SH, Badger GJ, Skelly JM, et al. Effects of smoking cessation with voucher-based contingency management on birth outcomes. Addiction 2010;105(11):2023-30. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Higgins ST, Heil SH, Badger GJ, Skelly JM, Solomon LJ, Bernstein IM. Educational disadvantage and cigarette smoking during pregnancy. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2009;104(Suppl 1):s100-5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Higgins ST, Heil SH, Dumeer AM, Thomas CS, Solomon LJ, Bernstein IM. Smoking status in the initial weeks of quitting as a predictor of smoking-cessation outcomes in pregnant women. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2006;85(2):138-41. - PubMed
    1. Higgins ST, Heil SH, Solomon LJ, Bernstein IM, Lussier JP, Abel RL, et al. A pilot study on voucher-based incentives to promote abstinence from cigarette smoking during pregnancy and postpartum. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2004;6(6):1015-20. - PubMed
    1. Higgins TM, Higgins ST, Heil SH, Badger GJ, Skelly JM, Bernstein IM, et al. Effects of cigarette smoking cessation on breastfeeding duration. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(5):483-8. - PMC - PubMed
Jassal 2021 {published data only}
    1. Jassal MS, Lewis-Land C, Thompson RE, Butz A. Randomised pilot trial of cash incentives for reducing paediatric asthmatic tobacco smoke exposures from maternal caregivers and members of their social network. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2021;106(4):345-54. [DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2019-318352] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Jeffery 1988 {published data only}
    1. Jeffery RW, Pheley AM, Forster JL, Kramer FM, Snell MK. Payroll contracting for smoking cessation: a worksite pilot study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1988;4(2):83-6. - PubMed
Joyce 2021 {published data only}
    1. Joyce C, Saulsgiver K, Mohanty S, Bachireddy C, Molfetta C, Steffy M, et al. Remote patient monitoring and incentives to support smoking cessation among pregnant and postpartum Medicaid members: three randomized controlled pilot studies. JMIR Formative Research 2021;5(9):e27801. [DOI: 10.2196/27801] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kendzor 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kendzor DE, Businelle MS, Poonawalla IB, Cuate EL, Kesh A, Rios DM, et al. Financial incentives for abstinence among socioeconomically disadvantaged individuals in smoking cessation treatment. American Journal of Public Health 2015;105(6):1198-205. - PMC - PubMed
Kollins 2010 {published data only}
    1. Kollins SH, McClernon FJ, Van Voorhees EE. Monetary incentives promote smoking abstinence in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2010;18(3):221-8. - PMC - PubMed
Lamb 2007 {published data only}
    1. Lamb RJ, Morral AR, Kirby KC, Javors MA, Galbicka G, Iguchi M. Contingencies for change in complacent smokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2007;15(3):245-55. - PubMed
Lamb 2010 {published data only}
    1. Lamb RJ, Kirby KC, Morral AR, Galbicka G, Iguchi MY. Shaping smoking cessation in hard-to-treat smokers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2010;78(1):62-71. - PMC - PubMed
Lopez 2015 {published data only}
    1. Lopez AA, Skelly JM, Higgins ST. Financial incentives for smoking cessation among depression-prone pregnant and newly postpartum women: effects on smoking abstinence and depression ratings. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2015;17(4):455-62. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Lopez‐Nunez 2015 {published data only}
    1. López-Núnez C, Martínez-Loredo V, Weidberg S, Pericot-Valverde I, Secades-Villa R. Voucher-based contingency management and in-treatment behaviors in smoking cessation treatment. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology 2015;16(1):30-38. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Lussier 2005 {published data only}
    1. Lussier JP, Higgins ST, Badger GJ. Influence of the duration of abstinence on the relative reinforcing effects of cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology 2005;181(3):486-95. - PubMed
MacKillop 2009 {published data only}
    1. McKillop J, Kahler CW. Delayed reward discounting predicts treatment response for heavy drinkers receiving smoking cessation treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2009;104(3):197-203. - PMC - PubMed
Meredith 2011 {published data only}
    1. Meredith SE, Grabinski MJ, Dallery J. Internet-based group contingency management to promote abstinence from cigarette smoking: a feasibility study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011;118(1):23-30. - PMC - PubMed
Monti 2006 {published data only}
    1. Monti P, Tevyaw TO, Tidey J, Colby S, Kahler C, Barnett N, et al. Combining motivational enhancement and contingency management for young adult smokers (SYM3D). In: Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, 12th Annual Meeting February 15-18, Orlando FLA. 2006.
    1. Ohmura Y, Takahashi T, Kitamura N. Discounting delayed and probabilistic monetary gains and losses by smokers of cigarettes. Psychopharmacology 2005;182(4):508-15. - PubMed
    1. Tevyaw TO, Tidey J, Colby S, Kahler C, Barnett N, Luboyeski E, et al. Contingency management and MET for young adult smokers: preliminary results (RP-065). In: Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, 11th Annual Meeting March, Prague, Czech Republic. 2005.
Mooney 2004 {unpublished data only}
    1. Mooney ME. Interventions to increase use of nicotine gum: a randomized, controlled single-blind trial. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2004;64:4052.
NCT00718835 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00718835. Incentive-based smoking cessation for methadone patients. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00718835 (first received 21 July 2008).
NCT00807742 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00807742. Contingency management for smoking in substance abusers. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00807742 (first received 12 December 2008).
    1. Rohsenow DJ, Monti PM, Colby SM, Martin RA. Brief interventions for smoking cessation in alcoholic smokers. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 2002;26(12):1950-1. - PubMed
NCT01145001 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01145001. Enhancing a high school-based smoking cessation program. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01145001 (first received 16 June 2010).
NCT01303081 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01303081. Pilot randomized controlled trial of financial incentives for smoking cessation. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01303081 (first received 24 February 2011).
Nowicki 1984 {published data only}
    1. Nowicki P, Gintzig L, Hebel JR, Latham R, Miller V, Sexton M. Effective smoking intervention during pregnancy. Birth 1984;11(4):217-24. - PubMed
    1. Sexton M, Hebel JR. A clinical trial of change in maternal smoking and its effects on birth weight. JAMA 1984;251(7):911-5. - PubMed
Olsen 1990 {published data only}
    1. Olsen GW, Lacy SE, Sprafka JM, Arceneaux TG, Potts TA, Kravat BA, et al. A 5-year evaluation of a smoking cessation incentive program for chemical employees. Preventive Medicine 1991;20(6):774-84. - PubMed
    1. Olsen GW, Shellenberger RJ, Lacy SE, Fishbeck WA, Bond GG. A smoking cessation incentive program for chemical employees: design and evaluation. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1990;6(4):200-7. - PubMed
Ormston 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ormston R, Van der Pol M, Ludbrook A, McConville S, Amos A. quit4u: the effectiveness of combining behavioural support, pharmacotherapy and financial incentives to support smoking cessation. Health Education Research 2015;30(1):121-33. - PubMed
Orr 2018 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Orr M, Smith C, Finlay M, Martin S, Brooks O, Oluwoye O, et al. Pilot investigation: randomized controlled analog trial for alcohol and tobacco smoking co-addiction using contingency management. Behavioural Pharmacology 2018;29(5):462-8. [DOI: 10.1097/FBP.0000000000000379] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Pardell 2003 {published data only}
    1. Pardell H, Faixedas MT, Salto E, Valverde A, Tresserras R, Taberner JL, et al. Influence of an economical incentive on smoking cessation at community level. In: Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 5th European Meeting 2003 November 20-22 Padua: Abstract book. Vol. Poster 41. 2003.
Parker 2007 {published data only}
    1. Parker DR, Windsor RA, Roberts MB, Hecht J, Hardy NV, Strolla LO, et al. Feasibility, cost and cost-effectiveness of a telephone-based motivational intervention for underserved pregnant smokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9(10):1043-51. - PubMed
Paxton 1980 {published data only}
    1. Paxton R. The effects of a deposit contract as a component in a behavioural programme for stopping smoking. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1980;18(1):45-50. - PubMed
Paxton 1981 {published data only}
    1. Paxton R. Deposit contracts with smokers: varying frequency and amount of repayments. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1981;19(2):117-23. - PubMed
Paxton 1983 {published data only}
    1. Paxton R. Prolonging the effects of deposit contracts with smokers. Behaviour Research and Therapy 1983;21(4):425-33. - PubMed
Rash 2018 {published data only}
    1. Rash C, Petry N, Alessi S. A randomized trial of contingency management for smoking cessation in the homeless. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2018;32(2):141-8. [DOI: 10.1037/adb0000350.] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Rohsenow 2005 {unpublished data only}
    1. Rohsenow D, Martin R, Tidey J, Monti P, Swift R. Motivational and contingency interventions for unmotivated smokers in substance abuse treatment (PA-7). In: Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, 11th Annual Meeting 2005 March, Prague, Czech Republic. 2005.
Roll 2008 {published data only}
    1. Roll JM, Howard JT. The relative contribution of economic valence to contingency management efficacy: a pilot study. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2008;41(4):629-33. - PMC - PubMed
Romanowich 2010 {published data only}
    1. Romanowich P, Lamb RJ. Effects of escalating and descending schedules of incentives on cigarette smoking in smokers without plans to quit. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2010;43(3):357-67. - PMC - PubMed
Romanowich 2013 {published data only}
    1. Romanowich P, Lamb RJ. The effect of framing incentives as either losses or gains with contingency management for smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(4):2084-8. - PMC - PubMed
Romanowich 2014 {published data only}
    1. Romanowich P, Lamb RJ. The effects of percentile versus fixed criterion schedules on smoking with equal incentive magnitude for initial abstinence. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2014;22(4):348-55. - PMC - PubMed
Sigmon 2012 {published data only}
    1. Sigmon SC, Patrick M, Saulsgiver K, Higgins S. Using financial incentives to sustain smoking abstinence among opioid-maintained patients. In: 74th Annual Scientific Meeting of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence; June 9-14, Palm Springs (CA), USA. 2012:Abstract 624.
Tanaka 2006 {published data only}
    1. Tanaka H, Yamato H, Tanaka T, Kadowaki T, Okamura T, Nakamura, M, et al. Effectiveness of a low-intensity intra-worksite intervention on smoking cessation in Japanese employees: a three-year intervention trial. Journal of Occupational Health 2006;48(3):175-82. - PubMed
Winhusen 2014 {published data only}
    1. Winhusen T, Stitzer M, Woody G, Brigham G, Kropp F, Ghitza U, et al. Design considerations for a study to evaluate the impact of smoking cessation treatment on stimulant use outcomes in stimulant-dependent individuals. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2012;33(1):197-205. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Winhusen TM, Brigham GS, Kropp F, Lindblad R, Gardin JG, Penn P, et al. A randomized trial of concurrent smoking cessation and substance use disorder treatment in stimulant-dependent smokers. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2014;75(4):336-43. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Winhusen TM, Kropp F, Theobald J, Lewis DF. Achieving smoking abstinence is associated with decreased cocaine use in cocaine-dependent patients receiving smoking-cessation. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2014;134:391-5. - PMC - PubMed
Wiseman 2005 {published data only}
    1. Wiseman EJ, Williams DK. Effectiveness of payments for reducing carbon monoxide levels and noncontingent payments on smoking behaviors in cocaine-abusing outpatients wearing nicotine or placebo patches. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2005;13(2):102-10. - PubMed
Yi 2008 {published data only}
    1. Yi R, Johnson MW, Giordano LA, Landes RD, Badger GJ, Bickel WK. The effects of reduced cigarette smoking on discounting future rewards: an initial evaluation. Psychological Record 2008;58(2):163-74. - PMC - PubMed
Yoon 2009 {published data only}
    1. Yoon JH, Higgins ST, Bradstreet MP, Badger GJ, Thomas CS. Changes in the relative reinforcing effects of cigarette smoking as a function of initial abstinence. Psychopharmacology 2009;205(2):305-18. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

ACTRN12623000922673 {unpublished data only}
    1. ACTRN12623000922673. Quitting Using Incentives Trial for a HEaLthy Pregnancy (QUIT-HELP). https://trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ACTRN12623000922673 (first received 28 August 2023).
Boderie 2020 {published data only}
    1. Boderie NW, Van Kippersluis JL, O Ceallaigh DT, Rado MK, Burdorf A, Van Lenthe FJ, et al. PERSonalised Incentives for Supporting Tobacco cessation (PERSIST) among healthcare employees: a randomised controlled trial protocol. BMJ Open 2020;10(9):e037799. [DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037799] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Edelman 2021 {published data only}
    1. Edelman EJ, Dziura J, Deng Y, Bold KW, Murphy SM, Porter E, et al. A SMARTTT approach to Treating Tobacco use disorder in persons with HIV (SMARTTT): rationale and design for a hybrid type 1 effectiveness-implementation study. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2021;110:106379. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2021.106379] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
ISRCTN55218215 {unpublished data only}
    1. ISRCTN55218215. Trial of financial incentives for preventing postpartum return to smoking. http://www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ISRCTN55218215 (first received 5 June 2019).
Kendzor 2022 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Kendzor DE, Businelle MS, Vidrine DJ, Frank-Pearce SG, Shih YT, Dallery J, et al. Mobile contingency management for smoking cessation among socioeconomically disadvantaged adults: protocol for a randomized trial. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2022;114:106701. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2022.106701] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT04881630. Mobile contingency management for smoking cessation. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04881630 (first received 29 March 2021).
Kohn 2022 {published data only}
    1. Kohn R, Vachani A, Small D, Stephens-Shields AJ, Sheu D, Madden VL, et al. Comparing smoking cessation interventions among underserved patients referred for lung cancer screening: a pragmatic trial protocol. Annals of the American Thoracic Society 2022;19(2):303-14. [DOI: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.202104-499SD] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Lynagh 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. ACTRN12612000399897. ENti-Ce Project - Encouragement for Nicotine Cessation in pregnant smokers. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=347842 (first received 16 March 2012).
    1. Lynagh M, Bonevski B, Sanson-Fisher R, Symonds I, Scott A, Hall A, et al. An RCT protocol of varying financial incentive amounts for smoking cessation among pregnant women. BMC Public Health 2012;12:1032. - PMC - PubMed
Molina 2022 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Molina MF, Hall SM, Stitzer M, Kushel M, Chakravarty D, Vijayaraghavan M. Contingency management to promote smoking cessation in people experiencing homelessness: leveraging the electronic health record in a pilot, pragmatic randomized controlled trial. PloS One 2022;17(12):e0278870. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278870] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. NCT04982952. Contingency management for smoking cessation. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04982952 (first received 23 July 2021).
NCT00064922 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00064922. Incentive programs for female substance abusers who smoke. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00064922 (first received 16 July 2003).
NCT00079469 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00079469. Bupropion and counseling with or without contingency management to enhance smoking cessation in cancer survivors who continue to smoke. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00079469 (first received 10 March 2004).
NCT00273793 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00273793. Increasing contingency management success using shaping. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00273793 (first received 9 January 2006).
NCT00408265 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00408265. Smoking cessation in substance abuse treatment patients: a feasibility study. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00408265 (first received 6 December 2006).
NCT00683280 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00683280. Contingency management and pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00683280 (first received 23 May 2008).
NCT00690131 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00690131. An integrated approach to smoking cessation in Severe Mental Illness (SMI). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00690131 (first received 4 June 2008).
NCT01484717 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01484717. Interactive Voice Response technology to mobilize contingency management for smoking cessation. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01484717 (first received 2 December 2011).
NCT01736982 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01736982. Contingency management for smoking cessation in the homeless. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01736982 (first received 29 November 2012).
NCT01789710 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01789710. Contingency management for smoking cessation in homeless smokers. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01789710 (first received 12 February 2013).
NCT01826331 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01826331. Incentives for participation versus outcomes. clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct01826331 (first received 8 April 2013).
NCT01965405 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT01965405. Smoking cessation for people living with HIV/AIDS. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01965405 (first received 18 October 2013).
NCT02737566 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT02737566. Small financial incentives to promote smoking cessation. clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct02737566 (first received 14 April 2016).
NCT02952703 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT02952703. Disseminating and implementing a smoking cessation program for pregnant and postpartum women. clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct02952703 (first received 2 November 2016).
NCT03528304 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT03528304. Native women's wellness: contingency management for tobacco cessation and weight loss. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03528304 (first received 17 May 2018).
NCT03608852 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT03608852. Unconventional Financial Incentives for Smoking Cessation. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03608852 (first received 24 July 2018).
NCT03979885 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT03979885. Financial incentives for smoking treatment. Https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct03979885 (first received 6 April 2019).
NCT04445662 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT04445662. Financial incentives for homeless smokers: a community-based RCT. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04445662 (first received 22 June 2020).
NCT04605458 {unpublished data only}
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