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. 2025 Jan 17;11(3):eadp5243.
doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adp5243. Epub 2025 Jan 15.

Insights on the evolution and adaptation toward high-altitude and cold environments in the snow leopard lineage

Qigao Jiangzuo  1   2 , Joan Madurell-Malapeira  3   4 , Xinhai Li  5   6 , Darío Estraviz-López  7   8 , Octávio Mateus  7   8 , Agnès Testu  9   10 , Shijie Li  1   11 , Shiqi Wang  1   11 , Tao Deng  1   11
Affiliations

Insights on the evolution and adaptation toward high-altitude and cold environments in the snow leopard lineage

Qigao Jiangzuo et al. Sci Adv. .

Abstract

How snow leopard gradually adapted to the extreme environments in Tibet remains unexplored due to the scanty fossil record in Tibet. Here, we recognize five valid outside-Tibet records of the snow leopard lineage. Our results suggest that the snow leopard dispersed out of the Tibetan Plateau multiple times during the Quaternary. The osteological anatomy of the modern snow leopard shows adaptation to the steep slope and, to a lesser extent, cold/high-altitude environment. Fossils and phylogeny suggest that the snow leopard experienced a gradual strengthening of such adaptation, especially since the Middle Pleistocene (~0.8 million years). Species distribution modeling suggests that the locations of the fossil sites are not within most suitable area, and we argue that local landscape features are more influential factors than temperature and altitude alone. Our study underscores the importance of integrating morphology, fossil records, and species distribution modeling, to comprehensively understand the evolution, ecology, and inform conservation strategies for endangered species.

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Figures

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.. Fossil snow leopards from Eurasia.
(A) Panthera aff. pyrenaica, IVPP V31895, Longdan, Linxia Basin, northeastern Tibet, China. (B) Panthera pyrenaica, E14-EFNI-1001, Arago Cave, Southeastern France. (C) Panthera aff. uncia, Zhoukoudian Loc. 3, Beijing, China. (D) Panthera uncia lusitana subsp. nov., MG1355.0001-0002, Manga Larga, Portugal. (E) Panthera uncia, IVPP V11800.1, Niuyan Cave, Beijing, China.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.. Craniodental ecomorphology of the snow leopard and related taxa.
(A) Cranial comparison of P. uncia AMNH M166952 and P. pardus AMNH M89009, highlighting functional traits related to high/cold adaptation (green) and (prey type related) mountain life (red). (B) Finite element analyses of mandibles of modern and fossil P. uncia, modern P. pardus, and several fossil snow leopards.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.. Functional statistical traits of Panthera uncia and its fossil relatives in comparison with other felids.
(A) Cranial angles of felids; (A1) Angle in the lion P. leo; (A2) angle in the snow leopard P. uncia; (A3) angle α and its impact on eyesight; (A4) comparison of angle α in modern and fossil felids; (A5) comparison of angle β in modern and fossil felids; (B) comparison of the ratio of ectotympanic and entotympanic area in modern and fossil felids; (C) comparison of angle γ in modern and fossil felids.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.. Functional statistical postcranial traits of Panthera uncia in comparison with other felids.
(A) Plot on tibia/femur length ratio and radius/humerus ratio. (B) Plot on pelvis/femur length ratio and scapular/humerus ratio. (C) PCA plot of 16 postcranial skeleton ratios; see the explanation in the appendix and raw data in table S3. R, radius; H, humerus; T, tibia; DH, distal antero-posterior height (of long bone); DW, distal medio-lateral width (of long bone); Pe, pelvis; Sc, scapular; F, femur; L, length; MC, metacarpal; MT, metatarsal; P/p, upper/lower premolar.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5.. Phylogenetic position and morphospace of modern and fossil snow leopards.
(A) Time-calibrated total evidence phylogenetic tree of pantherine cats and the morphological evolutionary rate. (B) Geometric morphometric analyses on lateral views of the cranium and mandible of the fossil snow leopard in comparison with modern species. (B1) Mandible lateral profile, (B2) cranial dorsal view, (B3) cranial lateral view, and (B4) cranial ventral view.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 6.. SDM predicted suitable distribution and morphospace of the modern and fossil snow leopards.
(A) The predicted probability of snow leopard presence under the LGM climate conditions. (B) Functional traits PCA morphospace, with reconstruction of fossil and modern snow leopards. Artwork by Jianhao Ye.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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