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. 2025 Jun;48(6):1303-1315.
doi: 10.1007/s40618-024-02527-8. Epub 2025 Jan 16.

Primary ovarian insufficiency in Classic Galactosemia: a systematic review

Egidio Candela  1   2 , Giulia Montanari  3 , Elisabetta Di Blasi  3 , Federico Baronio  4 , Alessandra Cassio  1 , Rita Ortolano  1
Affiliations

Primary ovarian insufficiency in Classic Galactosemia: a systematic review

Egidio Candela et al. J Endocrinol Invest. 2025 Jun.

Abstract

Purpose: Galactosemia is a rare inborn error of galactose metabolism. There are several forms, the most severe being classic galactosemia (CG), which begins in the first few days of life. Nowadays, it is possible to screen CG at birth, averting acute decompensation or death through diet. Although early dietary interventions help manage acute symptoms, long-term complications still occur, particularly primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) in female patients. This systematic review aims to synthesize existing literature on the relationship between galactosemia and POI, exploring the underlying mechanisms of pathophysiology, hormonal balance, metabolic control, fertility, and management.

Methods: We performed a systematic review according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses and PROSPERO. We queried the SCOPUS and PubMed databases using individual keywords and MeSH terms.

Results: Despite various proposed mechanisms, such as FSH dysfunction and the accumulation of galactose-1-phosphate, the exact cause of POI remains unclear, with studies showing variable correlations between genotype, galactose levels, and ovarian function. Monitoring AMH in prepubertal galactosemia patients may predict POI. Early estrogen replacement therapy, calcium supplementation, and strategies to improve galactosylation should be considered to enhance bone mineralization, given the impact of hypogonadism and low calcium intake on bone density in these patients. The course of POI in women with CG is unpredictable, with recent studies showing that nearly 30% of those attempting to conceive succeeded within a year, a rate that increases to almost 50% after two years.

Conclusion: Despite advancements in understanding and managing CG, POI remains a significant clinical challenge, necessitating ongoing research and a multidisciplinary approach to enhance the long-term health of affected individuals.

Keywords: Galactosemia; Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism; Metabolic disease; Newborn screening; Primary ovarian insufficiency.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Financial: The authors have no financial or proprietary interest in any material discussed in this article. Non-financial interests: None.

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