Electrochemical Biosensors 3D Printed by Fused Deposition Modeling: Actualities, Trends, and Challenges

Abstract

The technology of 3D printing, particularly fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing, has revolutionized the development of electrochemical biosensors, offering a versatile and cost-effective approach for clinical applications. This review explores the integration of FDM in fabricating biosensing platforms tailored for clinical diagnostics, emphasizing its role in detecting various biomarkers and viral pathogens. Advances in 3D printing materials, especially the emergence of bespoke conductive filaments, have allowed the production of highly customizable and efficient biosensors. A detailed discussion focuses on the design and application of these biosensors for viral detection, highlighting their potential to improve diagnostic accuracy. Furthermore, the review addresses current trends, including the push towards miniaturization and multianalyte detection, alongside challenges such as material optimization and regulatory hurdles. By providing a comprehensive overview, this work underscores the transformative impact of 3D-printed electrochemical biosensors in clinical diagnostics while also identifying critical areas for future research and development.

Keywords: FDM 3D printing; biomarkers; electrochemical biosensors; glucose; selective detection; virus.

Figure 1

Scheme representative of a biosensor with the electrochemical transducer. Copyright (2023), Elsevier [7].

Figure 2

Schematic representation of a typical fused deposition modeling setup. Copyright (2019), MDPI [34].

Figure 3

(A) Representation of the GOx biosensor in two steps to convert glucose into glucolactone. (B) Amperometric curves obtained in the presence of glucose (a: 0; b: 0.5; c: 1.0; d: 1.8; e: 2.8; f: 4.6 and g: 6.3 mmol L⁻¹). (C) Linear regression obtained from limit current versus glucose concentration. Copyright (2020), ELSEVIER [48].

Figure 4

(a) Illustration of the 3D-printed electrochemical COVID-19 immunosensor fabrication steps, (1) in situ incorporation of gold nanoparticles, (2) anchoring of a thiolated moiety, (3) anchoring of the cross-linker, and (4) immobilization of biomarker and bovine serum albumin blocking. (b) Indirect competitive assay carried out for detecting the COVID-19 recombinant protein (antigen), the one against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. * COVID-19 Spike Protein RBD Domain Coronavirus. Copyright (2021), ELSEVIER [39].

Figure 5

(A) Schematic illustration of the production of the 3D-printed electrochemical genosensor and hybridization step. (B) Representative scheme of the involved steps in the fabrication of the 3D-printed electrochemical immunosensor. (C) Scheme of all steps involved in the construction of the electrochemical immunosensor and conception of the real design of the electrochemical sensor. (A) Copyright (2022), MDPI [59]. (B) Copyright (2022), ELSEVIER [58]. (C) Copyright (2023), ELSEVIER [38].

Figure 6

Illustrative representation of the 3D-printed cell based on six electrodes and the corresponding electrochemical configuration for multiplexed detection. Copyright (2023), ELSEVIER [40].

Figure 7

(A) Schematic representation of the analytical protocol for production of biosensor. (B) Scheme of 3D graphene-PLA biosensor fabrication, (1) 3D printing of the electrode; (2) activation in DMF and via electrochemical methods; (3) modification of the 3D-printed electrode with the HRP enzyme; (4) functionalization of the electrode with gold nanoparticles, followed by immobilization of the HRP enzyme, (5) and (6) are corresponding mechanisms of H₂O₂ detection. (A) Copyright (2023), ELSEVIER [60]. (B) Copyright (2020), ELSEVIER [47].

Figure 8

(A) Scheme of the procedure for obtaining the G-PLA 3D-printed working, counter, and reference electrodes and biosensor production. (B) (1) Fabrication procedure of the 3D printed e-transferable microchip, (2) photographs of the microchip, and (3) the construction process of the biosensors. (C) Schematic representation for the stepwise fabrication of the skyscraper immunosensor. (D) 3D-printed immunosensor based on graphene immobilization scheme. (A) Copyright (2020), ELSEVIER [49]. (B) Copyright (2021), ELSEVIER [50]. (C) Copyright (2024), ELSEVIER [56]. (D) Copyright (2023), ELSEVIER [61].

Figure 9

(A) Immunosensor step by step buildup. (B) Schematic representation of the genosensor’s production by drop-casting. (C) Illustrative diagram of the biosensor’s preparation steps. (1) Copyright (2020), ELSEVIER [57]. (2) Copyright (2023), ELSEVIER [43]. (3) Copyright (2024), ELSEVIER [37].