Halide perovskites, a game changer for future medical imaging technology

Abstract

The accurate detection of x-rays enables broad applications in various fields, including medical radiography, safety and security screening, and nondestructive inspection. Medical imaging procedures require the x-ray detection devices operating with low doses and high efficiency to reduce radiation health risks, as well as expect the flexible or wearable ones that offer more comfortable and accurate diagnosis experiences. Recently, halide perovskites have shown promising potential in high-performance, cost-effective x-ray detection owing to their attractive features, such as strong x-ray absorption, high-mobility-lifetime product, tunable bandgap, fast response, as well as low-cost raw materials, facile processing, and excellent flexibility. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the recent advances in halide perovskite x-ray detectors and imaging, focusing on their application potential in medical imaging technology. We highlight the recent demonstrations and optimizations of halide perovskite x-ray detectors and imaging and their application in medical radiography. Finally, we conclude by pointing out the challenges of perovskite x-ray detection devices for the clinical practical applications and by sharing our perspectives on the potential solutions for driving the field forward.

FIG. 1.

Halide perovskite materials for high-performance x-ray detectors with the great potential for medical imaging technology. (a) Halide perovskite materials have unique features for high-performance x-ray detectors. (b) Integration of perovskite x-ray detectors for multipixel flat-panel detectors. (c) Clinical applications through employing halide perovskite x-ray detectors (Inset x-ray image: Reproduced with permission from Yakunin et al., Nat. Photonics 9, 444–449 (2015). Copyright 2015 Springer Nature.¹⁰⁷)

FIG. 2.

Overview of x-ray properties and detection mechanisms. (a) Classification of x-rays by wavelength and energy spectrum, with a magnified view of the visible light range for comparison. (b) Key interactions between x-ray photons and matter, illustrating processes such as photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, Rayleigh scattering, and electron–positron pair production. (c) Illustration of electron–hole pair generation in detector materials as a result of x-ray photon interaction. (d) Detection principle of an indirect x-ray detector, highlighting scintillation processes where x-rays are first converted to visible light before electronic signal generation. (e) Detection principle of a direct x-ray detector, where x-rays directly create electron–hole pairs, enabling immediate signal capture.

FIG. 3.

General setup and figures of merit of x-ray imaging devices. (a) Schematic illustration of the internal construction of a flat-panel x-ray imaging system. Reproduced with permission from L. Lança and A. Silva, Radiography 15, 58–62 (2009). Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. (b) Schematic diagram of detective quantum efficiency. (c) Comparison of dynamic range for flat-panel x-ray detector (orange) and film-screen x-ray detector (blue). (d) Dependency of signal-to-noise ratio on the dose. From White Paper, Dynamic Flat-Panel Detector Technology. Copyright 2013 Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Inc. Reproduced with permission Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Inc.

FIG. 4.

Halide perovskites with different structures and band gaps. (a) Schematic illustration of perovskite unit cell, crystal structures of typical 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D halide perovskites, as well as double perovskite. Reproduced with permission from He et al., Nat. Photonics 16, 14–26 (2022). Copyright 2022 Springer Nature. (b) Tolerance factors (t.f.) of a series of typical 3D halide perovskites. Reproduced with permission from Zhu et al., J. Mater. Chem. C 6, 10121 (2018). Copyright 2018 Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) Schematic energy level diagram of various typical halide perovskites. Reproduced with permission from Tao et al., Nat. Commun. 10, 2560 (2019). Copyright 2019 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.

FIG. 5.

Unique properties of halide perovskites making for x-ray detection. (a) Comparison of the linear attenuation coefficient values of commonly used perovskites such as CsPbBr₃, MAPbI₃, and Cs₂AgBiBr₆ with those of traditional materials such as Si, Ge, α-Se, and CdTe at different x-ray photon energy. Reproduced with permission from He et al., Nat. Photonics 16, 14–26 (2022). Copyright 2022 Springer Nature. (b) μτ product values of hybrid perovskite MAPbBr₃ single crystals under different stoichiometric ratios and with distinct surface passivation process conditions. Reproduced with permission from Wei et al., Nat. Commun. 10, 1066 (2019). Copyright 2019 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (c) Hybrid perovskite MAPbBr_2.94Cl_0.06 single crystals exhibiting high resistivity. Reproduced with permission from Wei et al., Nat. Mater. 16, 826 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (d) Different transition energy levels of intrinsic acceptors and intrinsic donors within MAPbI₃ hybrid perovskite. Reproduced with permission from Yin et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 063903 (2014) with the permission of AIP Publishing. (e) Comparison of the normalized scintillation decay (light yield) values of MAPbBr₃ (T = 77 K, red line) with these of LYSO-Ce (T = 292 K, black line) under the excitation with 14 keV x-ray pulses. Reproduced with permission from Mykhaylyk et al., Mater. Horiz. 6, 1740–1747 (2019). Copyright 2019 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license.

FIG. 6.

Using 3D hybrid perovskite films as active layers for x-ray detectors. (a) Schematic illustration showing the crystal structure of 3D hybrid perovskite MAPbI₃. Inset shows the cross-sectional image of MAPbI₃ thin film through spray coating process. (b) X-ray images showing the inner contents of a Kinder Surprise egg and the integration of a chip and radio frequency antenna within an electronic key card. Scale bars: 10 mm. Reproduced with permission from Yakunin et al., Nat. Photonics 9, 444–449 (2015). Copyright 2015 Springer Nature. (c) X-ray-induced photocurrent with the dose rate and the calculated sensitivity via fitting the data. Reproduced with permission from Basiricò et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 29(34), 1902346 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (d) Cross-sectional SEM image of a triple-cation perovskite film by inkjet-printed method (approximately 3.7 μm). Reproduced with permission from Mescher et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(13), 15774–15784 (2020). Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (e) Photograph displaying the lustrous surface of the hot-pressed FA_0.5MA_0.5PbI₃ microcrystalline film. (f) X-ray-induced current density vs dose rate of the control and hot-pressed FA_0.5MA_0.5PbI₃ microcrystalline perovskite detectors at a 0-V bias. Reproduced with permission from Li et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62, e202302435 (2023). Copyright 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FIG. 7.

Applications of all-inorganic and low-dimensional perovskite films in x-ray detection. (a) Cross-sectional scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a CsPbBr₃ thick film prepared through slow cooling. (b) Dependence of sensitivity and gain factor on the applied electric field. Reproduced with permission from Pan et al., Adv. Mater. 31(44), 1904405 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (c) Schematic diagram of a p-i-n x-ray detector using a 2D Ruddlesden–Popper (RP) perovskite (BA)₂(MA)₂Pb₃I₁₀ as the x-ray absorbing layer. (d) Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), showing the x-ray-induced charge density minus dark noise, for the 2D RP perovskite detector compared to a silicon reference. Reproduced with permission from Tsai et al., Sci. Adv. 6, eaay0815 (2020). Copyright 2020 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (e) Electric field dependence of sensitivity and gain factor for a different perovskite-based x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from He et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2109458 (2022). Copyright 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (f) X-ray detection capability of a 1D inorganic halide perovskite CsPbI₃ single crystal. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11(2), 432–437 (2020). Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (g) Schematic of an x-ray detector based on CsPbBr₃ NCs as a scintillator. (h) Comparison of x-ray images of ballpoint pens captured using x-ray detectors with GOS (up) and CsPbBr₃ NCs (down) scintillators at varying x-ray dose rates. Reproduced with permission from Heo et al., Adv. Mater. 30, 1801743 (2018). Copyright 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (i) Radioluminescence response of a CsPbBr3-based scintillator as a function of x-ray dose rate. The inset shows radioluminescence profiles at low-dose rates. (j) Bright-field image of the CsPbBr₃ scintillator. (k) X-ray image of the CsPbBr₃ scintillator sample. Reproduced with permission from Chen et al., Nature 561(7721), 88–93 (2018). Copyright 2018 Springer Nature.

FIG. 8.

X-ray detection devices by single-crystal hybrid perovskites. (a) Schematic diagram of the single-crystal radiation detector, illustrating the spatial distribution of charge generation regions—shallow regions near the surface for visible light excitation and deeper regions for x-ray-induced excitation. (b) Current density response generated by x-rays at different dose rates, including the threshold for the lowest detectable dose rate. Reproduced with permission from Wei et al., Nat. Photonics 10, 333–339 (2016). Copyright 2016 Springer Nature. (c) Schematic representation of a Si-integrated MAPbBr₃ single crystal detector architecture. (d) Plot of x-ray-induced current density as a function of x-ray dose rate for the integrated device. (e) Optical and x-ray images of an encapsulated metallic spring using the perovskite x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Wei et al., Nat. Photonics 11, 315–321 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (f) Comparison of the sensitivity of c-MAPbI₃ and d-MAPbI₃ single-crystal perovskite detectors under varying applied biases. Reproduced with permission from Ye et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 29, 1806984 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (g) Diagram illustrating the DMA⁺ and GA⁺ alloying process and the modification of the lattice structure in the perovskite material. (h) X-ray-induced current density as a function of dose rate for both pristine and alloyed single-crystal perovskite detectors. Reproduced with permission from Huang et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58, 17834–17842 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (i) Current-density response of single-crystal perovskite detectors under x-ray exposure at varying dose rates. Reproduced with permission from Liu et al., Adv. Mater. 33, 2006010 (2021). Copyright 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (j) FWHMs derived from x-ray rocking curves for the (110) diffraction peaks of CsFA and CsFAGA perovskite crystals, with and without doping by alkaline-earth metal ions (Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, and Ba²⁺ series, 0.5 mol. % feed ratio). (k) SNR as a function of x-ray dose rate for CsFA-, CsFAGA-, and CsFAGA:Sr-based single-crystal perovskite detectors, with error bars indicating variations in the current signal. Reproduced with permission from Jiang et al., Nat. Photonics 16, 575–581 (2022). Copyright 2022 Springer Nature.

FIG. 9.

Applications of all-inorganic perovskite single crystals in x-ray detectors. (a) Bias-dependent sensitivity of devices based on Cs_1-xRb_xPbBr₃ single crystals. Reproduced with permission from Li et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(1), 989–996 (2020). Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (b) SNR of the device derived by calculating the standard deviation of the x-ray photocurrent. Reproduced with permission from Pan et al., Nat. Photonics 11, 726–732 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (c) Temperature dependence of sensitivity for the single-crystal double-perovskite Cs₂AgBiBr₆ x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Steele et al., Adv. Mater. 30, 1804450 (2018). Copyright 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (d) Sensitivity of the device by optimized Cs₂AgBiBr₆ single crystals under different electric fields. Reproduced with permission from Yin et al., Adv. Optical Mater. 7, 1900491 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (e) Sensitivity under different biases of the x-ray detectors based on PEA-Cs₂AgBiBr₆ and pristine single crystals. Reproduced with permission from Yuan et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 29, 1900234 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FIG. 10.

X-ray detectors utilizing low-dimensional perovskite single crystals. (a) Structural configuration of (BA)₂CsAgBiBr₇ highlights its 2D perovskite quantum-confined architecture. (b) X-ray-induced current response at multiple dose rates under a 10 V bias. Reproduced with permission from Xu et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58, 15757–15761 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (c) Schematic of (BDA)PbI₄ crystal stacking along the (100) and (001) planes. (d) Dose rate-dependent x-ray response current, with sensitivity derived from the fitted slope. Reproduced with permission from Shen et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59, 14896–14902 (2020). Copyright 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (e) Sensitivity of (NH₄)₃Bi₂I₉ single-crystal detectors for x-ray detection in directions parallel and perpendicular to the (001) plane. Reproduced with permission from Zhuang et al., Nat. Photonics 13, 602–608 (2019). Copyright 2019 Springer Nature. (f) SNR of the 2D Rb₃Bi₂I₉ perovskite single-crystals x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Xia et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1910648 (2020). Copyright 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (g) Zigzag chain structure of BiI₆ octahedra in (H₂MDAP)BiI₅ crystals. (h) X-ray-induced current plotted against dose rate. Reproduced with permission from Tao et al., Chem. Mater. 31(15), 5927–5932 (2019). Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society. (i) Sensitivity of Cs₃Bi₂I₉ single-crystal detectors under various electric fields. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al., Nat. Commun. 11, 2304 (2020). Copyright 2020 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (j) SNR vs dose rate for an out-of-plane x-ray detector at 40 V bias. Reproduced with permission from Zheng et al., J. Energy Chem. 49, 299–306 (2020). Copyright 2020 Elsevier B.V.

FIG. 11.

Applications of perovskite wafers in x-ray detectors. (a) Free-standing MAPbI₃ wafer, measuring 0.5 in. × 1 mm. (b) Comparison of extracted charge at a constant electric field (E = 0.2 V μm⁻¹) for the MAPbI₃ wafer-based detector and the CdTe “Timepix” reference detector. Reproduced with permission from Shrestha et al., Nat. Photonics 11, 436–440 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (c) As-prepared Cs₂AgBiBr₆ wafers of varying diameters (5, 3, and 1 cm, from left to right). (d) X-ray sensitivity of Cs₂AgBiBr₆ wafer-based x-ray detectors at different electric fields. Yang et al., Nat. Commun. 10, 1989 (2019). Copyright 2019 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (e) Image of as-prepared MAPbI₃@EDDI wafer. (f) Sensitivity of the MAPbI₃@EDDI wafer-based x-ray detector as a function of the applied electric field. Reproduced with permission from Chai et al., ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 5(1), 544–551 (2023). Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society. (g) Photographs of δ-FAPbI₃ and α-FAPbI₃ wafers. (h) Dose-rate-dependent SNR for the δ-FAPbI₃ x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Wang et al., ACS Nano 17(14), 13638–13647 (2023). Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society.

FIG. 12.

Interfacial engineering for x-ray detectors. (a) Architecture of the MAPbI₃-based x-ray detector with using asymmetric electrodes (Au and Ga). Reproduced with permission from Huang et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58, 17834–17842 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (b) X-ray photovoltaic device containing a 110-μm MAPbI₃ single crystal and interfacial layers. (c) Energy band alignment and operation principle in the x-ray photovoltaic mode. Reproduced with permission from Sakhatskyi et al., Nat. Photonics 17, 510–517 (2023). Copyright 2023 Springer Natrue. (d) Illustration of an all-solution-processed digital x-ray detector containing various perovskites layers. Reproduced with permission from Kim et al., Nature 550, 87 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Natrue. (e) Illustration of crystal structure when doped MAPbI₃ single crystals are grown at temperatures under and above 110 °C, respectively. Reproduced with permission from Wang et al., Adv. Electron. Mater. 4, 1800237 (2018). Copyright 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (f) Heterojunction perovskite film structure scheme [Cs_0.15FA_0.85PbI₃/Cs_0.15FA_0.85Pb(I_0.15Br_0.85)₃]. (g) Band diagram of the heterojunction perovskite film. Reproduced with permission from Zhou et al., Sci. Adv. 7, eabg6716 (2021). Copyright 2021 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (h) Illustration of the 2D/3D (BA)₂CsAgBiBr₇/Cs₂AgBiBr₆ hetero-crystal. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143(49), 20802–20810 (2021). Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (i) 3D/2D single-crystal perovskite heterostructure of FAPbBr₃/(FPEA)₂PbBr₄. (j) Cross-section SEM images of 3D/2D single-crystal perovskite heterojunction with a 19-μm 2D perovskite. (k) Current density of 3D/2D perovskite single-crystal heterojunction and FAPbBr₃ single-crystal devices at different x-ray dose rates, respectively. Reproduced with permission from He et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2104880 (2021). Copyright 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (l) High-resolution TEM image of the cross-section interface of the Si-integrated MAPbBr₃ single crystal. (m) Energy level diagram for the interface of the Si/MAPbBr₃ single crystal with the dipole layer. Reproduced with permission from Wei et al., Nat. Photonics 11, 315–321 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Nature.

FIG. 13.

Overview of scalable fabrication and integration techniques for x-ray detectors. Schematic representations depict various x-ray imaging modes, including: (a) single-pixel detection; (b) 1D detector array scanning; and (c) 2D detector array scanning. Reproduced with permission from Wei et al., Nat. Commun. 10, 1066 (2019). Copyright 2019 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (d) Illustration of the blade-coating technique. (e) Photo of a 28² cm² large-area MAPbI₃/TMTA thick film. Reproduced with permission from Xia et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2110729 (2022). Copyright 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (f) Diagram of the heat-assisted press method for compact perovskite wafer fabrication. (g) Photo of a multi-crystalline perovskite wafer with an 8 cm diameter. Reproduced with permission from Hu et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(14), 16592–16600 (2020). Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (h) Schematic of a fabricated perovskite x-ray detector using a pixel grid. Reproduced with permission from Deumel et al., Nat. Electron. 4, 681–688 (2021). Copyright 2021 Springer Nature. (i) Illustration of dual-source thermal evaporation of FAPbI₃. (j) Photo of the coated large-area FAPbI₃ film. Reproduced with permission from Li et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(2), 2971–2978 (2021). Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (k) Schematic of the membrane filling method. Reproduced with permission from Zhao et al., Nat. Photonics 14, 612–617 (2020). Copyright 2020 Springer Nature. (l) Schematic of the mist deposition equipment. Reproduced with permission from Haruta et al., Cryst. Growth Des. 21(7), 4030–4037 (2021). Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.

FIG. 14.

Strategies for enhancing the stability of perovskite x-ray detectors. (a) Photographs showing the color changes of FAPbI₃ and FAMACs single crystals after 7 and 60 days of storage in ambient conditions, respectively. (b) Powder XRD patterns of FAMACs single crystal before and after 60 days of exposure to ambient conditions. (c) Stability comparison of three types of perovskite single-crystal detectors in ambient environments. Reproduced with permission from Liu et al., Adv. Mater. 33, 2006010 (2021). Copyright 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (d) Operational stability of an unencapsulated Cs₂AgBiBr₆ single-crystal x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Pan et al., Nat. Photonics 11, 726–732 (2017). Copyright 2017 Springer Nature. (e) Long-term operational and thermal stability of an unencapsulated CsFAGA:Sr x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Jiang et al., Nat. Photonics 16, 575–581 (2022). Copyright 2022 Springer Nature. (f) Schematic illustrating the packaging module of the encapsulated x-ray detector. (g) I–t periodic x-ray response of the encapsulated device before and after two months of ambient storage. (h) Comparison of the initial sensitivity and post-storage sensitivity of the encapsulated x-ray detector after two months. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Dev. 67, 3191–3198 (2020). Copyright 2020 IEEE.

FIG. 15.

Flexible direct-type x-ray detectors by perovskite films. (a) Illustration and image of the flexible x-ray detector utilizing CsPbBr₃ QDs. (b) I–V curves of the detector arrays bent at various angles. (c) I–V curves of the detector arrays after 20, 50, 100, and 200 bending cycles. Reproduced with permission from Liu et al., Adv. Mater. 31, 1901644 (2019). Copyright 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (d) Schematic of a thin-film perovskite x-ray detector fabricated on a 1.4-μm PET foil. (e) Front and back side configurations for isotropic x-ray detection measurements. (f) x-ray-induced current vs dose rate for x-rays incident from the back (red) and front (blue) of the detector. Reproduced with permission from Demchyshyn et al., Adv. Sci. 7, 2002586 (2020). Copyright 2020 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. (g) Time-resolved current response of flexible triple-cation perovskite x-ray detectors to 70 kVp x-rays at varying dose rates from 1.5 to 6.6 mGy_air s⁻¹. Reproduced with permission from Mescher et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(13), 15774–15784 (2020). Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. (h) Structure of the perovskite flexible integrated x-ray detector. (i) Repeated bending measurements of the flexible x-ray detector. Reproduced with permission from Zhao et al., Adv. Optical Mater. 11, 2202668 (2023). Copyright 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FIG. 16.

Perovskite films for flexible, direct-type x-ray detectors. (a) Schematic of a flexible 2D perovskite-based x-ray detector, illustrating the film morphology. (b) Dark current (blue) and photocurrent (orange) responses as a function of device curvature radius under a 5 V bias and exposure to 40 kVp x-rays at a dose rate of 3.6 mGy s⁻¹. Reproduced with permission from Lédée et al., Adv. Optical Mater. 10, 2101145 (2022). Copyright 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (c) Structure of the flexible Au/Cs4PbI6/Au detector. (d) Sensitivity variations under different bending angles, with a photo of the flexible detector shown in the inset. (e) Device sensitivity under a 90° bend after 600 cycles. Reproduced with permission from Zhou et al., Nano Lett. 21(24), 10279–10283 (2021). Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society. (f) Images of a large-area (400 cm²) flexible perovskite-filled membrane. (g) Schematic of a flexible x-ray detector using a perovskite-filled membrane. (h) Sensitivity and flexibility of perovskite-filled membrane devices with varying thicknesses, with an inset showing a photo of a bent device. Reproduced with permission from Zhao et al., Nat. Photonics 14, 612–617 (2020). Copyright 2020 Springer Nature.

FIG. 17.

Flexible, indirect-type perovskite x-ray detectors. (a) Image of CsPbBr₃@PMMA films illuminated by UV light. (b) Plot of normalized photoluminescence quantum yield vs number of bending cycles. (c) Modulation transfer function values for CsPbBr₃@PMMA films of varying thicknesses (0.01, 0.04, 0.09, 0.15 mm). Reproduced with permission from Wang et al., Laser Photonics Rev. 16, 2100736 (2022). Copyright 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (d) Schematic of the CsPbBr₃-based polymer-ceramic structure. (e) Images of the CsPbBr₃-based polymer-ceramic scintillator and different indirect x-ray imaging methods. (f) Modulation transfer function values for the CsPbBr₃-based polymer-ceramic scintillator. Reproduced with permission from Chen et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2107424 (2022). Copyright 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (g) Cross-sectional SEM image of a polymer-perovskite quantum dot-polymer thin-film scintillation screen, with a 5 μm scale bar; inset shows high-resolution TEM of perovskite QDs. (h) Relative light output of the PPP scintillation screen as a function of bending cycles at a 2 mm bending radius; inset shows images of a fresh sample and the sample after 300 and 600 cycles under 365 nm laser irradiation. Reproduced with permission from Xu et al., Mater. Today Phys. 18, 100390 (2021). Copyright 2021 Elsevier B.V. (i) Schematic of the Mn (II)-doped BA₂PbBr₄ perovskite crystal structure. (j) Diagram of planar and non-planar x-ray imaging setups. (k) Image of copper tape with “DUT” pattern attached to a bent plastic sheet (i), and corresponding planar (ii) and non-planar (iii) x-ray images of the patterned tape. Reproduced with permission from Shao et al., Adv. Optical Mater. 10, 2102282 (2022). Copyright 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.