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Meta-Analysis
. 2025 Jan 27;1(1):CD015120.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD015120.pub2.

Differences in the effectiveness of individual-level smoking cessation interventions by socioeconomic status

Annika Theodoulou  1 , Thomas R Fanshawe  1 , Eleanor Leavens  2 , Effie Theodoulou  3 , Angela Difeng Wu  1 , Laura Heath  1 , Cristina Stewart  1   4 , Nicole Nollen  2 , Jasjit S Ahluwalia  5   6 , Ailsa R Butler  1 , Anisa Hajizadeh  1 , James Thomas  7 , Nicola Lindson  1 , Jamie Hartmann-Boyce  1
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Differences in the effectiveness of individual-level smoking cessation interventions by socioeconomic status

Annika Theodoulou et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: People from lower socioeconomic groups are more likely to smoke and less likely to succeed in achieving abstinence, making tobacco smoking a leading driver of health inequalities. Contextual factors affecting subpopulations may moderate the efficacy of individual-level smoking cessation interventions. It is not known whether any intervention performs differently across socioeconomically-diverse populations and contexts.

Objectives: To assess whether the effects of individual-level smoking cessation interventions on combustible tobacco cigarette use differ by socioeconomic groups, and their potential impact on health equalities.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from inception to 1 May 2023 for Cochrane reviews investigating individual-level smoking cessation interventions. We selected studies included in these reviews that met our criteria. We contacted study authors to identify further eligible studies.

Selection criteria: We included parallel, cluster or factorial randomised controlled trials (RCTs) investigating any individual-level smoking cessation intervention which encouraged complete cessation of combustible tobacco cigarette use compared to no intervention, placebo, or another intervention in adults. Studies must have assessed or reported smoking quit rates, split by any measure of socioeconomic status (SES) at longest follow-up (≥ six months), and been published in 2000 or later.

Data collection and analysis: We followed standard Cochrane methods for screening, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment. We assessed the availability of smoking abstinence data by SES in lieu of selective reporting. The primary outcome was smoking cessation quit rates, split by lower and higher SES, at the longest follow-up (≥ six months). Where possible, we calculated ratios of odds ratios (ROR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each study, comparing lower to higher SES. We pooled RORs by intervention type in random-effects meta-analyses, using the generic inverse-variance method. We subgrouped by type of SES indicator and economic classification of the study country. We summarised all evidence in effect direction plots and categorised the intervention impact on health equality as: positive (evidence that the relative effect of the intervention on quit rates was greater in lower rather than higher SES groups), possibly positive, neutral, possibly neutral, possibly negative, negative, no reported statistically significant difference, or unclear. We evaluated certainty using GRADE.

Main results: We included 77 studies (73 from high-income countries), representing 127,791 participants. We deemed 12 studies at low overall risk of bias, 13 at unclear risk, and the remaining 52 at high risk. Included studies investigated a range of pharmacological interventions, behavioural support, or combinations of these. Pharmacological interventions We found very low-certainty evidence for all the main pharmacological interventions compared to control. Evidence on cytisine (ROR 1.13, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.74; 1 study, 2472 participants) and nicotine electronic cigarettes (ROR 4.57, 95% CI 0.88 to 23.72; 1 study, 989 participants) compared to control indicated a greater relative effect of these interventions on quit rates in lower compared to higher SES groups, suggesting a possibly positive impact on health equality. CIs for both estimates included the possibility of no clinically important difference and of favouring higher SES groups. There was a lower relative effect of bupropion versus placebo on quit rates in lower compared to higher SES groups, indicating a possibly negative impact on health equality (ROR 0.05, 95% CI 0.00 to 1.00; from 1 of 2 studies, 354 participants; 1 study reported no difference); however, the CI included the possibility of no clinically important difference. We could not determine the intervention impact of combination or single-form nicotine replacement therapy on relative quit rates by SES. No studies on varenicline versus control were included. Behavioural interventions We found low-certainty evidence of lower quit rates in lower compared to higher SES groups for print-based self-help (ROR 0.85, 95% CI 0.52 to 1.38; 3 studies, 4440 participants) and text-messaging (ROR 0.76, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.23; from 3 of 4 studies, 5339 participants; 1 study reported no difference) versus control, indicating a possibly negative impact on health equality. CIs for both estimates included the possibility of no clinically important difference and of favouring lower SES groups. There was very low-certainty evidence of quit rates favouring higher SES groups for financial incentives compared to balanced intervention components. However, the CI included the possibility of no clinically important difference and of favouring lower SES groups (ROR 0.91, 95% CI 0.45 to 1.85; from 5 of 6 studies, 3018 participants; 1 study reported no difference). This indicates a possibly negative impact on health equality. There was very low-certainty evidence of no difference in quit rates by SES for face-to-face counselling compared to less intensive counselling, balanced components, or usual care. However, the CI included the possibility of favouring lower and higher SES groups (ROR 1.26, 95% CI 0.18 to 8.93; from 1 of 6 studies, 294 participants; 5 studies reported no difference), indicating a possibly neutral impact. We found very low-certainty evidence of a greater relative effect of telephone counselling (ROR 4.31, 95% CI 1.28 to 14.51; from 1 of 7 studies, 903 participants; 5 studies reported no difference, 1 unclear) and internet interventions (ROR 1.49, 95% CI 0.99 to 2.25; from 1 of 5 studies, 4613 participants; 4 studies reported no difference) versus control on quit rates in lower versus higher SES groups, suggesting a possibly positive impact on health equality. The CI for the internet intervention estimate included the possibility of no difference. Although the CI for the telephone counselling estimate only favoured lower SES groups, most studies narratively reported no clear evidence of interaction effects.

Authors' conclusions: Currently, there is no clear evidence to support the use of differential individual-level smoking cessation interventions for people from lower or higher SES groups, or that any one intervention would have an effect on health inequalities. This conclusion may change as further data become available. Many studies did not report sufficient data to be included in a meta-analysis, despite having tested the association of interest. Further RCTs should collect, analyse, and report quit rates by measures of SES, to inform intervention development and ensure recommended interventions do not exacerbate but help reduce health inequalities caused by smoking.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01553084 NCT01983150 NCT00448344 NCT00345891 NCT01812278 NCT02096029 NCT00608426 NCT00775944 NCT00786149 NCT00683839 NCT00282009 NCT01156610 NCT01526265 NCT02351609 NCT02693626 NCT02416011 NCT02844595 NCT02301403 NCT01487642 NCT02730260 NCT00128375 NCT02521662 NCT02539875 NCT02497339 NCT00301145 NCT01867983 NCT00086385 NCT00297453 NCT00365508 NCT01047527 NCT00503230 NCT02859142.

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Conflict of interest statement

AT holds a PhD scholarship from the Society for the Study of Addiction, graduate scholarships from St Catherine's College at the University of Oxford, and Global Grants from The Rotary Foundation to support DPhil studies. The funders had no role in the design, conduct, or publication of the review.

JSA is chair of the scientific advisory board and equity owner in a US start‐up company, Qnovia (formerly Respira Technologies), which is developing a nicotine‐based smoking cessation prescription medication working with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In 2024, the medication will enter early Phase I trials. As part of this role, JSA declares consultancy fees from Qnovia (personal payment). JSA is affiliated with the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, who have declared an opinion on the topic. JSA was a Principal Investigator of a study which was eligible for inclusion in this review: Helping African American Light Smokers Quit, supported by the National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health (NIH R01 CA91912). The trial was conducted at University of Kansas Medical Center, USA. JSA was not involved in assessing eligibility, extracting data, assessing risk of bias or grading the certainty of the evidence for this study (performed independently by AT, EL, JHB and NL). JSA also discloses the following travel expense fees: Global Tobacco Nicotine Forum 2021, 2022, 2023 (funded by the conference), Tobacco Science Research Conference 2022 (funded by the conference), Food and Drug Law Institute 2021, 2022, 2023 (funded by FDLI, a non‐profit); all personal payments.

NL has received payment for lectures on systematic review methodology from Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (employment; personal payment). NL has been an applicant and principal investigator on project funding to carry out research in the area of tobacco control from the NIHR Evidence Synthesis programme, Cancer Research UK (charity), Clarion Futures (charity), Oxfordshire County Council and the NIHR Oxfordshire and Thames Valley ARC, and Greater Manchester NHS Integrated Care, all of whom have interests in people stopping smoking; all paid to institutions but NL benefitted. NL has written pieces for The Conversation on the findings of Cochrane reviews assessing the effects of treatments for smoking cessation. These are evidence‐based and not based on personal opinion. NL was involved with the Preloading trial funded by NIHR HTA, and the Rapid Reduction Trial, funded by the British Health Foundation. These RCTs were carried out at the University of Birmingham and the University of Oxford. NL was not involved in assessing eligibility, extracting data, assessing risk of bias or grading the certainty of the evidence for these studies (performed independently by AT, AH, LH, and JHB).

ET, ADW, CS, ARB, AH and JT have no conflicts of interest to declare.

TRF declares a grant from the NIHR Community Healthcare MedTech and In Vitro Diagnostics Co‐operative at Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust (MIC‐2016‐018) and the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration Oxford and Thames Valley at Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust. These funds are all paid to the University of Oxford; however, TRF benefits in the form of a salary.

EL is a Clinical Psychology Fellow, University of Kansas Health System. She declares a grant from the National Institutes of Health (K01DA054995), which supports her salary and research studies, paid to the institution.

JHB is a Cochrane Editor. She was not involved in the editorial process for this review. JHB declares that she writes regularly for The Conversation and is interviewed in the media on the topic of e‐cigarettes and smoking. She has been an applicant and principal investigator on project funding to carry out research in the area of tobacco control from the NIHR Evidence Synthesis programme, Cancer Research UK (charity), the National Cancer Institute, and the US Food and Drug Administration; all paid to institutions. She has received consultancy payments from the Truth Initiative, the National Cancer Institute, and the US Food and Drug Administration.

LH works as a General Practitioner in the UK NHS.

NN has received grants from the National Institutes of Health (R01DA046576, R01DA03181, R01DA055999, and R01MD018123). Pfizer provided medication for trials R01DA046575 and R01DA031815 but Pfizer was not involved in the design, execution, analysis or reporting of results. None of these declared grants were included in the Cochrane review. NN was a Co‐Investigator of a study which was eligible for inclusion in this review: Helping African American Light Smokers Quit, supported by the National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health (NIH R01 CA91912). The trial was conducted at University of Kansas Medical Center, USA. NN was not involved in assessing eligibility, extracting data, assessing risk of bias or grading the certainty of the evidence for this study (performed independently by AT, EL, JHB and NL). NN is a member of the scientific advisory board for Qnovia (formerly Respira Technologies), which is developing a nicotine‐based smoking cessation prescription medication working with the FDA. NN declares consultancy fees as part of this role (personal payment).

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD015120

References

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    1. Liao Y, Wu Q, Kelly B, Zhang F, Tang YY, Want Q, et al. Effectiveness of a text-messaging-based smoking cessation intervention ("Happy Quit") for smoking cessation in China: a randomized controlled trial. PLOS Medicine 2018;15(12):e1002713. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002713] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Liao Y, Wu Q, Tang J, Zhang F, Wang X, Qi C, et al. The efficacy of mobile phone-based text message interventions ('Happy Quit') for smoking cessation in China. BMC Public Health 2016;16(1):833. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3528-5] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Lou 2013 {published data only}
    1. Lou P, Zhu Y, Chen P, Zhang P, Yu J, Zhang N, et al. Supporting smoking cessation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with behavioral intervention: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Family Practice 2013;14:91. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2296-14-91] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Martinez 2021 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Martinez U, Simmons VN, Sutton SK, Drobes DJ, Meltzer LR, Brandon KO, et al. Targeted smoking cessation for dual users of combustible and electronic cigarettes: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Public Health 2021;6(7):e500-9. [DOI: 10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30307-8] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Meltzer LR, Simmons VN, Sutton SK, Drobes DJ, Quinn GP, Meade CD, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a smoking cessation self-help intervention for dual users of tobacco cigarettes and e-cigarettes: intervention development and research design. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2017;60:56-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2017.06.014] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Martinez‐Vispo 2019 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Martinez-Vispo C, Rodriguez-Cano R, Lopez-Duran A, Senra C, Fernandez Del Rio E, Becoña E. Cognitive-behaviouraltreatment with behavioural activation for smoking cessation. PLOS One 2019;14(4):e0214252. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214252] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McKay 2008 {published data only}
    1. McKay HG, Danaher BG, Seeley JR, Lichtenstein E, Gau JM. Comparing two web-based smoking cessation programs: randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2008;10(5):e40. [DOI: 10.2196/jmir.993] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Minué‐Lorenzo 2019 {published data only}
    1. Minué-Lorenzo C, Olano-Espinosa E, Cura-González I, Vizcaíno-Sánchez JM, Camerelles-Guillem F, Granados-Garrido JA, et al. Subsidized pharmacological treatment for smoking cessation by the Spanish public health system: a randomized, pragmatic, clinical trial by clusters. Tobacco Induced Diseases 2019;17:64. [DOI: 10.18332/tid/111368] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Murray 2008 {published data only}ISRCTN71514078
    1. Murray RL, Coleman T, Antoniak M, Stocks J, Fergus A, Britton J, et al. The effect of proactively identifying smokers and offering smoking cessation support in primary care populations: a cluster-randomized trial. Addiction 2008;103(6):998-1006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02206.x] - DOI - PubMed
Nohlert 2009 {published data only}
    1. Nohlert E, Tegelberg A, Tillgren P, Johansson P, Rosenblad A, Helgason AR. Comparison of a high and a low intensity smoking cessation intervention in a dentistry setting in Sweden: a randomized trial. BMC Public Health 2009;9:121. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-121] [CLINICALTRIALS.GOV: NCT00670514] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Nollen 2006 {published data only}
    1. Berg CJ, Thomas JL, Guo H, An LC, Okuyemi KS, Collins TC, et al. Predictors of smoking reduction among Blacks. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(4):423-31. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntq019] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Nollen NL, Mayo MS, Sanderson Cox L, Okuyemi KS, Choi WS, Kaur H, et al. Predictors of quitting among African American light smokers enrolled in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2006;21(6):590-5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00404.x] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Okuyemi KS, Cox LS, Nollen NL, Snow TM, Kaur H, Choi W, et al. Baseline characteristics and recruitment strategies in a randomized clinical trial of African-American light smokers. American Journal of Health Promotion 2007;21(3):183-91. [DOI: 10.4278/0890-1171-21.3.183] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Warren JR, Okuyemi KS, Guo H, Thomas JL, Ahluwalia JS. Predicting home smoking restrictions among African American light smokers. American Journal of Health Behavior 2010;34(1):110-18. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Whembolua GL, Davis JT, Reitzel LR, Guo H, Thomas JL, Goldade KR, et al. Subjective social status predicts smoking abstinence among light smokers. American Journal of Health Behavior 2012;36(5):639-46. [DOI: 10.5993/AJHB.36.5.6] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Patten 2001 {published data only}
    1. Patten CA, Martin JE, Calfas KJ, Lento J, Wolter TD. Behavioral treatment for smokers with a history of alcoholism: predictors of successful outcome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001;69(5):796-801. [DOI: 10.1037//0022-006x.69.5.796] - DOI - PubMed
Piper 2010a {published and unpublished data}
    1. Japuntich SJ, Leventhal AM, Piper ME, Bolt D, Roberts L, Fiore MC, et al. Smoker characteristics and smoking-cessation milestones. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2011;40(3):286-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2010.11.016] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Piper ME, Cook JW, Schlam TR, Jorenby DE, Smith SS, Bolt D, et al. Gender, race, and education differences in abstinence rates among participants in two randomized smoking cessation trials. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(6):647-57. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntq067] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Piper 2010b {published and unpublished data}
    1. Piper ME, Cook JW, Schlam TR, Jorenby DE, Smith SS, Bolt DM, et al. Gender, race, and education differences in abstinence rates among participants in two randomized smoking cessation trials. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(6):647-57. [PMID: 10.1093/ntr/ntq067] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Smith SS, McCarthy DE, Japuntich SJ, Christiansen B, Piper ME, Jorenby DE, et al. Comparative effectiveness of 5 smoking cessation pharmacotherapies in primary care clinics. Archives of Internal Medicine 2009;169(22):2148-55. [CLINICALTRIALS.GOV: NCT00296647] [DOI: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.426] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Piper 2017 {published data only}
    1. Piper ME, Cook JW, Schlam TR, Smith SS, Bolt DM, Collins LM, et al. Toward precision smoking cessation treatment I: moderator results from a factorial experiment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2017;171:59-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.027] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Piper ME, Fiore MC, Smith SS, Fraser D, Bolt DM, Collins LM, et al. Identifying effective intervention components for smoking cessation: a factorial screening experiment. Addiction 2016;111(1):129-41. [DOI: 10.1111/add.13162] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Piper 2018 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Piper ME, Cook JW, Schlam TR, Jorenby DE, Smith SS, Collins LM, et al. A randomized controlled trial of an optimized smoking treatment delivered in primary care. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2018;52(10):854-64. [DOI: 10.1093/abm/kax059] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Prochaska 2014 {published data only}
    1. Prochaska JJ, Hall SE, Delucchi K, Hall SM. Efficacy of initiating tobacco dependence treatment in inpatient psychiatry: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Public Health 2014;104(8):1557-65. [DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301403] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Quist‐Paulsen 2005 {published data only}
    1. Quist-Paulsen P, Bakke PS, Gallefoss F. Predictors of smoking cessation in patients admitted for acute coronary heart disease. European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation 2005;12(5):472-7. [DOI: 10.1097/01.hjr.0000183914.90236.01] - DOI - PubMed
Ratner 2004 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Ratner PA, Johnson JL, Richardson CG, Bottorff JL, Moffat B, Mackay M, et al. Efficacy of a smoking-cessation intervention for elective-surgical patients. Research in Nursing and Health 2004;27(3):148-61. [DOI: 10.1002/nur.20017] - DOI - PubMed
Simon 2004 {published data only}
    1. Simon JA, Duncan C, Carmody TP, Hudes ES. Bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2004;164:1797-803. - PubMed
    1. Simon JA, Duncan C, Carmody TP, Hudes ES. Bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized trial. In: National Conference on Tobacco or Health; 2002 Nov 19-20; San Francisco, California. 2002.
Skov‐Ettrup 2016 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Skov-Ettrup LS, Dalum P, Bech M, Tolstrup JS. The effectiveness of telephone counselling and internet- and text-message-based support for smoking cessation: results from a randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2016;111(7):1257-66. [DOI: 10.1111/add.13302] - DOI - PubMed
Smit 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Smit ES, Vries H, Hoving C. Effectiveness of a web-based multiple tailored smoking cessation program: a randomized controlled trial among Dutch adult smokers. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2012;14(3):e82. [DOI: 10.2196/jmir.1812] [DUTCH TRIAL REGISTER: NTR1351] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Smit 2016 {published and unpublished data}NTR1351
    1. Smit ES, De Vries H, Hoving C. Results of the PAS study: a randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a web-based multiple tailored smoking cessation program combined with tailored counseling by practice nurses. Health Communication 2016;31(9):1165-73. [DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2015.1049727] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Smit ES, De Vries H, Hoving C. The PAS study: a randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a web-based multiple tailored smoking cessation programme and tailored counselling by practice nurses. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2010;31(3):251-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2010.03.001] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Smit ES. Motivating smokers to quit: effectiveness and feasibility of a web-based multiple tailored smoking cessation programme and tailored counselling by practice nurses [Doctoral Thesis]. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Datawyse/Universitaire Pers Maastricht, 2012. [DOI: 10.26481/dis.20121003es] - DOI
Stanczyk 2014 {published data only}
    1. Stanczyk NE, Bolman C, Muris JW, De Vries H. Study protocol of a Dutch smoking cessation e-health program. BMC Public Health 2011;11:847. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-847] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Stanczyk NE, Bolman C, Smit ES, Candel MJ, Muris JW, De Vries H. How to encourage smokers to participate in web-based computer-tailored smoking cessation programs: a comparison of different recruitment strategies. Health Education Research 2014;29(1):23-40. [DOI: 10.1093/her/cyt104] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Stanczyk NE, Crutzen R, Bolman C, Muris J, De Vries H. Comparison of text and video computer-tailored interventions for smoking cessation: randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2014;16(3):69. [DOI: 10.2196/jmir.3016] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Stapleton 2013 {published data only}
    1. Stapleton J, West R, Hajek P, Wheeler J, Vangeli E, Abdi Z, et al. Randomized trial of NRT, bupropion, and NRT plus bupropion for smoking cessation: effectiveness in clinical practice. Addiction 2013;108(12):2193-201. [DOI: 10.1111/add.12304] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Strecher 2008 {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, McClure JB, Alexander GL, Chakraborty B, Nair VN, Konkel JM, et al. Web-based smoking-cessation programs: results of a randomized trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008;34(5):373-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.12.024] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Sumner 2016 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Sumner W 2nd, Walker MS, Highstein GR, Fischer I, Yan Y, McQueen A, et al. A randomized controlled trial of directive and nondirective smoking cessation coaching through an employee quitline. BMC Public Health 2016;16:550. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3202-y] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Swan 2008 {published data only}
    1. Swan GE, Jack LM, Javitz HS, McAfee T, McClure JB. Predictors of 12-month outcome in smokers who received bupropion sustained-release for smoking cessation. Central Nervous System Drugs 2008;22(3):239-56. [DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200822030-00004] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Swan GE, Javitz HS, Jack LM, Curry SJ, McAfee T. Heterogeneity in 12-month outcome among female and male smokers. Addiction 2004;99:237-50. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00629.x] - DOI - PubMed
Tappin 2015 {published and unpublished data}ISRCTN87508788
    1. Tappin D, Bauld L, Purves D, Boyd K, Sinclair L, MacAskin S, et al. Financial incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2015;350:h134. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.h134] - DOI - PubMed
Tappin 2022 {published data only}ISRCTN15236311
    1. Tappin D, Sinclair L, Kee F, McFadden M, Robinson-Smith L, Mitchell A, et al. Effect of financial voucher incentives provided with UK stop smoking services on the cessation of smoking in pregnant women (CPIT III): pragmatic, multicentre, single blinded, phase 3, randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2022;379:e071522. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2022-071522] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Unrod 2016 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Unrod M, Simmons VN, Sutton SK, Cummings KM, Celestino P, Craig BM, et al. Relapse-prevention booklets as an adjunct to a tobacco quitline: a randomized controlled effectiveness trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2016;18(3):298-305. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntv079] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Van den Brand 2018 {published data only}NTR5657
    1. Van den Brand FA, Nagelhout GE, Winkens B, Chavannes NH, Van Schayck OC. Effect of a workplace-based group training programme combined with financial incentives on smoking cessation: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet. Public Health 2018;3(11):e536-44. [DOI: 10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30185-3] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Van den Brand FA, Nagelhout GE, Winkens B, Evers SM, Kotz D, Chavannes NH, et al. The effect of financial incentives on top of behavioral support on quit rates in tobacco smoking employees: study protocol of a cluster-randomized trial. BMC Public Health 2016;16(1):1056. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3729-y] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Volpp 2009 {published data only}
    1. Volpp KG, Troxel AB, Pauly MV, Glick HA, Puig A, Asch DA, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of financial incentives for smoking cessation. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;360(7):699-709. [DOI: 10.1056/NEJMsa0806819] - DOI - PubMed
Walker 2011 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Walker N, Howe C, Bullen C, Grigg M, Glover M, McRobbie H, et al. Does improved access and greater choice of nicotine replacement therapy affect smoking cessation success? Findings from a randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2011;106(6):1176-85. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03419.x] - DOI - PubMed
Walker 2020 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Walker N, Parag V, Verbiest M, Laking G, Laugesen M, Bullen C. Nicotine patches used in combination with e-cigarettes (with and without nicotine) for smoking cessation: a pragmatic, randomised trial. Lancet. Respiratory Medicine 2020;8(1):5-64. [DOI: 10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30269-3] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Walker N, Verbiest M, Kurdziel T, Laking G, Laugesen M, Parag V, et al. Effectiveness and safety of nicotine patches combined with e-cigarettes (with and without nicotine) for smoking cessation: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open 2019;9(2):e023659. [PMID: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023659] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Wang 2017 {published data only}
    1. Wang MP, Li WH, Cheung YT, Lam OB, Wu Y, Kwong AC, et al. Brief advice on smoking reduction versus abrupt quitting for smoking cessation in Chinese smokers: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2017;20(1):67-72. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntx026] - DOI - PubMed
Weng 2021 {published data only}
    1. Weng X, Luk TT, Lau OS, Suen YN, Lee JJ, Li WH, et al. Brief mindfulness training for smoking cessation in Chinese women in workplaces: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Addictive Behaviors 2021;113:106677. [DOI: 10.1016/ j.addbeh.2020.106677] - PubMed
Wiggers 2006 {published data only}
    1. Wiggers LC, Smets EM, Oort FJ, Peters RJ, Storm-Versloot MN, Vermeulen H, et al. The effect of a minimal intervention strategy in addition to nicotine replacement therapy to support smoking cessation in cardiovascular outpatients: a randomized clinical trial. European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation 2006;13(6):931-7. [DOI: 10.1097/hjr.0b013e328010f263] - DOI - PubMed
Willemsen 2006 {published data only}
    1. Willemsen MC, Wiebing M, Van Emst A, Zeeman G. Helping smokers to decide on the use of efficacious smoking cessation methods: a randomized controlled trial of a decision aid. Addiction 2006;101(3):441-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01349.x] - DOI - PubMed
Yilmaz 2006 {published data only}
    1. Yilmaz G, Karacan C, Yoney A, Yilmaz T. Brief intervention on maternal smoking: a randomized controlled trial. Child: Care, Health and Development 2006;31(1):73-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00570.x] - DOI - PubMed
Zbikowski 2011 {published data only}
    1. Zbikowski SM, Jack LM, McClure JB, Deprey M, Javitz HS, McAfee TA. Utilization of services in a randomized trial testing phone- and web-based interventions for smoking cessation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2011;13(5):319-27. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntq257] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

An 2008 {published data only}
    1. An LC, Klatt C, Perry CL, Lein EB, Hennrikus DJ, Pallonen UE, et al. The RealU online cessation intervention for collegesmokers: a randomized controlled trial. Preventive Medicine 2008;47(2):194-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.04.011] - DOI - PubMed
Aveyard 2003 {published data only}
    1. Aveyard P, Griffin C, Lawrence T, Cheng KK. A controlled trial of an expert system and self-help manual intervention based on the stages of change versus standard self-help materials in smoking cessation. Addiction 2003;98(3):345-54. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00302.x] - DOI - PubMed
Bailey 2010 {published data only}
    1. Bailey SR, Hammer SA, Bryson SW, Schatzberg AF, Killen JD. Using treatment process data to predict maintained smoking abstinence. American Journal of Health Behavior 2010;34(6):801-10. [DOI: 10.5993/ajhb.34.6.14] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Bergen 2013 {published data only}
    1. Bergen AW, Javitz HS, Su L, He Y, Conti DV, Benowitz NL, et al. The DRD4 Exon III VNTR, bupropion, and associations with prospective abstinence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013;15(7):1190-200. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nts245] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Bock 2008 {published data only}
    1. Becker BM, Bock BC, Partridge R. Smoking cessation interventions in the emergency department for smokers with chest pain. Academic Emergency Medicine 2003;10:507.
    1. Bock BC, Becker BM, Niaura RS, Partridge R, Fava JL, Trask P. Smoking cessation among patients in an emergency chest pain observation unit: outcomes of the Chest Pain Smoking Study (CPSS). Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10(10):1523-31. - PubMed
Bolman 2002 {published data only}
    1. Bolman C, De Vries H, Van Breukelen G. A minimal-contact intervention for cardiac inpatients: long-term effects on smoking cessation. Preventive Medicine 2002;35:181-92. [DOI: 10.1006/pmed.2002.1036] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Bolman C, De Vries H, Van Breukelen G. Evaluation of a nurse-managed minimal-contact smoking cessation intervention for cardiac inpatients. Health Education Research 2002;17:99-116. [DOI: 10.1093/her/17.1.99] - DOI - PubMed
Bovet 2002 {published data only}
    1. Bovet P, Perret F, Cornuz J, Quilindo J, Paccaud F. Improved smoking cessation in smokers given ultrasound photographs of their own atherosclerotic plaque. Preventive Medicine 2002;34(2):212-20. [DOI: 10.1006/pmed.2001.0976] - DOI - PubMed
Bush 2018 {published data only}
    1. Bush T, Lovejoy J, Javitz H, Magnusson B, Torres AJ, Mahuna S, et al. Comparative effectiveness of adding weight control simultaneously or sequentially to smoking cessation quitlines: study protocol of a randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health 2016;16:615. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3231-6] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Bush T, Lovejoy J, Javitz H, Torres AJ, Wassum K, Tan MM, et al. Simultaneous vs. sequential treatment for smoking and weight management in tobacco quitlines: 6 and 12 month outcomes from a randomized trial. BMC Public Health 2018;18(1):678. [DOI: 10.1186/s12889-018-5574-7] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Carpenter 2020 {published data only}
    1. Carpenter MJ, Wahlquist AE, Dahne J, Gray KM, Garrett-Mayer E, Cummings KM, et al. Nicotine replacement therapy sampling for smoking cessation within primary care: results from a pragmatic cluster randomized clinical trial. Addiction 2020;115(7):1358-67. [DOI: 10.1111/add.14953] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Dahne J, Wahlquist AE, Boatright AS, Garrett-Mayer E, Fleming DO, Davis R, et al. Nicotine replacement therapy sampling via primary care: methods from a pragmatic cluster randomized clinical trial. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2018;72:1-7. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Dahne J, Wahlquist AE, Smith TT, Carpenter MJ. The differential impact of nicotine replacement therapy sampling on cessation outcomes across established tobacco disparities groups. Preventive Medicine 2020;136:106096. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106096] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Christenhusz 2007 {published data only}
    1. Christenhusz L, Pieterse M, Seydel E, Palen J. Prospective determinants of smoking cessation in COPD patients within a high intensity or a brief counseling intervention. Patient Education and Counseling 2007;66(2):162-6. - PubMed
Cooper 2014 {published data only}
    1. Coleman T, Thornton J, Britton J, Lewis S, Watts K, Coughtrie MWH, et al. Protocol for the Smoking, Nicotine and Pregnancy (SNAP) trial: double-blind, placebo-randomised, controlled trial of nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy. BMC Health Services Research 2007;7:2. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cooper S, Lewis S, Thornton JG, Marlow N, Watts K, Britton J, et al. The SNAP trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial of nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy-clinical effectiveness and safety until 2 years after delivery, with economic evaluation. Health Technology Assessment 2014;18(54):1-128. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Thornton JG, Coleman T, Britton J, Cooper S, Watts K, Lewis S, et al. The smoking, nicotine and pregnancy (SNAP) trial: Main results. Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition 2011;96:Fa109.
Elfeddali 2012 {published data only}
    1. Elfeddali I, Bolman C, Candel MJ, Wiers RW, De Vries H. Preventing smoking relapse via web-based computer-tailored feedback: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2012;14(4):e109. 9400123000016724 - PMC - PubMed
    1. Elfeddali I, Bolman C, De Vries H. SQ4U a computer tailored smoking relapse prevention program incorporating planning strategy assignments and multiple feedback time points after the quit-attempt: development and design protocol. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2012;33(1):151-8. 9400123000012399 [6824] - PubMed
Ershoff 1999 {published data only}
    1. Ershoff DH, Quinn VP, Boyd NR, Stern J, Gregory M, Wirtschafter D. The Kaiser Permanente prenatal smoking cessation trial: when more isn't better, what is enough? American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1999;17(3):161-8. [DOI: 10.1016/s0749-3797(99)00071-9] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Ershoff DH, Quinn VP, Boyd NR, Stern J, Gregory M, Wirtschafter D. The Kaiser Permanente prenatal smoking cessation trial: when more isn't better, what is enough? Tobacco Control 2000;9(Suppl III):iii60. - PMC - PubMed
Glasgow 2009 {published data only}
    1. Glasgow RE, Gaglio B, Estabrooks PA, Marcus AC, Ritzwoller DP, Smith TL, et al. Long-term results of a smoking reduction program. Medical Care 2009;47(1):115-20. [DOI: 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31817e18d1] - DOI - PubMed
Hall 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Tsoh JY, Prochaska JJ, Eisendrath S, Rossi JS, Redding CA, et al. Treatment for cigarette smoking among depressed mental health outpatients: a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Public Health 2006;96(10):1808-14. - PMC - PubMed
Hall 2009 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Humfleet GL, Muñoz RF, Reus VI, Robbins JA, Prochaska JJ. Extended treatment of older cigarette smokers. Addiction 2009;104(6):1043-52. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02548.x] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Hennrikus 2002 {published data only}
    1. Hennrikus DJ, Jeffery RW, Lando HA, Murray DM, Brelje K, Davidann B, et al. The SUCCESS project: the effect of program format and incentives on participation and cessation in worksite smoking cessation programs. American Journal of Public Health 2002;92(2):274-9. [DOI: 10.2105/ajph.92.2.274] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Hickman 2015 {published data only}
    1. Hickman NJ 3rd, Delucchi KL, Prochaska JJ. Treating tobacco dependence at the intersection of diversity, poverty, and mental illness: a randomized feasibility and replication trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2015;17(8):101-21. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntv034] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Hoving 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hoving C, Mudde AN, Dijk F, De Vries H. Effectiveness of a smoking cessation intervention in Dutch pharmacies and general practices. Health Education 2010;110(1):17-29. [DOI: 10.1108/09654281011008726] - DOI
Huber 2003 {published data only}
    1. Huber D, Gastner J. Smoking cessation: a comparison of behavior therapy, nicotine replacement therapy and their combination. Verhaltenstherapie und Verhaltenshmedizin 2003;24:167-85.
Humfleet 2011 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Humfleet G, Dilley J, Hall S, Delucchi K. Smoking cessation in HIV+ clinical care settings (SYM10D). In: Proceedings of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco's 17th Annual Meeting; 2011 Feb 16-19; Toronto (ON). 2011.
    1. Humfleet G, Hall S, Delucchi K, Dilley J. Smoking cessation in HIV+ clinical care settings: preliminary findings. POS2-17. In: Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco's 15th Annual Meeting; 2009 Apr 27-30; Dublin, Ireland. 2008.
Joseph 2011 {published data only}
    1. Joseph AM, Fu SS, Lindgren B, Rothman AJ, Kodl M, Lando H, et al. Chronic disease management for tobacco dependence: a randomized, controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2011;171(21):1894-900. [DOI: 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.500] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Korhonen 2005 {published data only}
    1. Korhonen T, Kinnunen T, Quiles Z, Leeman RF, Terwal DM, Garvey AJ. Cardiovascular risk behavior among sedentary female smokers and smoking cessation outcomes. Tobacco Induced Diseases 2005;3(1):7-26. [DOI: 10.1186/1617-9625-3-1-7] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Lerman 2004 {published data only}
    1. Lerman C, Kaufmann V, Rukstalis M, Patterson F, Perkins K, Audrain McGovern J, et al. Individualizing nicotine replacement therapy for the treatment of tobacco dependence: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2004;140(6):426-33. [DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-140-6-200403160-00009] - DOI - PubMed
Lindson‐Hawley 2014 {published data only}
    1. Lindson-Hawley N, Coleman T, Docherty G, Hajek P, Lewis S, Lycett D, et al. Nicotine patch preloading for smoking cessation (the preloading trial): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2014;15(1):1-18. [DOI: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-296] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McClure 2012 {published data only}
    1. McClure JB, Derry H, Riggs KR, Westbrook EW, St John J, Shortreed SM, et al. Questions about quitting (Q2): design and methods of a Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) randomized screening experiment for an online, motivational smoking cessation intervention. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2012;33(5):1094-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2012.06.009] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Mermelstein 2003 {published data only}
    1. Mermelstein R, Hedeker D, Wong SC. Extended telephone counseling for smoking cessation: does content matter? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003;71(3):565-74. [DOI: 10.1037/0022-006x.71.3.565] - DOI - PubMed
Moreno‐Coutiño 2015 {published data only}
    1. Moreno-Coutiño A, García-Anguiano F, Ruiz-Velasco S, Medina-Mora ME. Assessment of depressive symptoms in severe smokers with minimal-mild depressive symptomatology receiving pre-smoking abstinence for integrated treatment: a randomized clinical trial. Salud Mental 2015;38(6):433-39. [DOI: 10.17711/SM.0185-3325.2015.058] - DOI
NCT00948129 {published data only}
    1. NCT00948129. Smoking cessation for low-income adults. classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00948129 (first received 29 July 2009).
NCT01363245 {published data only}
    1. NCT01363245. Effectiveness of smoking-cessation interventions for urban hospital patients. classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01363245 (first received 1 June 2011).
Rabius 2004 {published data only}
    1. Rabius V, McAlister AL, Geiger A, Huang P, Todd R. Telephone counseling increases cessation rates among young adult smokers. Health Psychology 2004;23(5):539-41. - PubMed
Reid 2007 {published data only}
    1. Reid RD, Pipe AL, Quinlan B, Oda J. Interactive voice response telephony to promote smoking cessation in patients with heart disease: a pilot study. Patient Education and Counseling 2007;66(3):319-26. - PubMed
Rettig 2018 {published data only}
    1. Rettig EM, Fakhry C, Hales RK, Kisuule F, Quon H, Kiess AP, et al. Pilot randomized controlled trial of a comprehensive smoking cessation intervention for patients with upper aerodigestive cancer undergoing radiotherapy. Head & Neck 2018;40(7):1534-47. [DOI: 10.1002/hed.25148] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Sadr Azodi 2009 {published data only}
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Scanlon 2000 {published data only}
    1. Scanlon PD, Connett JE, Waller LA, Altose MD, Bailey WC, Buist AS, et al. Smoking cessation and lung function in mild-to-moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2000;161:381-90. [DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm.161.2.9901044] - DOI - PubMed
Schnoll 2010 {published data only}
    1. Schnoll RA, Martinez E, Tatum KL, Glass M, Bernath A, Ferris D, et al. Nicotine patch vs nicotine lozenge for smoking cessation: an effectiveness trial coordinated by the Community Clinical Oncology Program. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2010;107(2-3):237-43. - PMC - PubMed
Schnoll 2015 {published and unpublished data}
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Seidman 2010 {published data only}
    1. Seidman DF, Westmaas JL, Goldband S, Rabius V, Katkin ES, Pike KJ, et al. Randomized controlled trial of an interactive internet smoking cessation program with long-term follow-up. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2010;39(1):48-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s12160-010-9167-7] - DOI - PubMed
Shahab 2011 {published data only}
    1. Shahab L, West R, McNeill A. A randomized, controlled trial of adding expired carbon monoxide feedback to brief stop smoking advice: evaluation of cognitive and behavioral effects. Health Psychology 2011;30(1):49-57. [DOI: 10.1037/a0021821] - DOI - PubMed
Simon 2003 {published data only}
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Sobell 2017 {published data only}
    1. Sobell MB, Peterson AL, Sobell LC, Brundige A, Hunter CM, Hunter CM. Reducing alcohol consumption to minimize weight gain and facilitate smoking cessation among military beneficiaries. Addictive Behaviors 2017;75:145-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.06.018] - DOI - PubMed
Solomon 2000 {published data only}
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Solomon 2007 {published data only}
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Squiers 2017 {published data only}
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Stanton 2015 {published data only}
    1. Stanton CA, Papandonatos GD, Shuter J, Bicki A, Lloyd-Richardson EE, De Dios MA, et al. Outcomes of a tailored intervention for cigarette smoking cessation among Latinos living with HIV/AIDS. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2015;17(8):975-82. - PMC - PubMed
Stockings 2014 {published data only}ACTRN1260900046525
    1. Stockings EA, Bowman JA, Baker AL, Terry M, Clancy R, Wye PM, et al. Impact of a postdischarge smoking cessation intervention for smokers admitted to an inpatient psychiatric facility: a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2014;16(11):1417-28. - PubMed
Sykes 2001 {published data only}
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Ussher 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ussher M, Lewis S, Aveyard P, Manyonda I, West R, Lewis B, et al. The London Exercise And Pregnant smokers (LEAP) trial: a randomised controlled trial of physical activity for smoking cessation in pregnancy with an economic evaluation. Health Technology Assessment 2015;19(84):vii-xxiv; 1-135. - PMC - PubMed
Velicer 2007 {published data only}
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Volpp 2006 {published data only}
    1. Volpp KG, Levy AG, Asch DA, Berline JA, Murphy JJ, Gomez A, et al. A randomized controlled trial of financial incentives for smoking cessation. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 2006;15(1):12-8. - PubMed
Warner 2016 {published data only}
    1. Warner DO, Nolan MB, Kadimpati S, Burke MV, Hanson AC, Schroeder DR. Quitline tobacco interventions in hospitalized patients: a randomized trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2016;51(4):473-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2016.03.005] - DOI - PubMed
Webb Hopper 2013 {published data only}
    1. Webb Hooper M, Rodríguez de Ybarra D, Baker EA. The effect of placebo tailoring on smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2013;81(5):800–09. [DOI: 10.1037/a0032469] - DOI - PubMed
Wu 2007 {published data only}
    1. Wu TP, Chen FP, Liu JY, Lin MH, Hwang SJ. A randomized controlled clinical trial of auricular acupuncture in smoking cessation. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association: JCMA 2007;70(8):331-8. - PubMed
Yeh 2012 {published data only}
    1. Yeh HW, Ellerbeck EF, Mahnken JD. Simultaneous evaluation of abstinence and relapse using a Markov chain model in smokers enrolled in a two-year randomized trial. BMC Medical Research Methodology 2012;12:95. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2288-12-95] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Zheng 2007 {published data only}
    1. Zheng P, Guo F, Chen Y, Fu Y, Ye T, Fu H. A randomized controlled trial of group intervention based on social cognitive theory for smoking cessation in China. Journal of Epidemiology 2007;17(5):147-55. [DOI: 10.2188/jea.17.147] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Zwar 2015 {published data only}
    1. Zwar N, Richmond R, Halcomb E, Furler J, Smith J, Hermiz O, et al. Quit in general practice: a cluster randomised trial of enhanced in-practice support for smoking cessation. BMC Family Practice 2010;11:59. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Zwar NA, Richmond RL, Halcomb EJ, Furler JS, Smith JP, Hermize O, et al. Quit in general practice: a cluster randomized trial of enhanced in-practice support for smoking cessation. Family Practice 2015;32(2):173-80. [DOI: 10.1093/fampra/cmu089] - DOI - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Sheffer 2017 {published data only}
    1. Sheffer CE, Bickel WK, Franck CT, Panissidi L, Pittman JC, Stayna H, et al. Improving tobacco dependence treatment outcomes for smokers of lower socioeconomic status: a randomized clinical trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2017;181:177-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.09.015] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

NCT02859142 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT02859142. Varenicline augmentation of patch outcomes in heavy drinkers' smoking cessation. classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02859142 (first received 8 August 2016).

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