Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2024 Dec 26;11(2):e41524.
doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e41524. eCollection 2025 Jan 30.

Occurrence of efavirenz, levonorgestrel, ibuprofen, and diclofenac in wastewaters of limpopo province, South Africa

E P Munzhelele  1 , W B Ayinde  1   2 , W M Gitari  1   3 , G K Pindihama  1 , R Mudzielwana  1
Affiliations

Occurrence of efavirenz, levonorgestrel, ibuprofen, and diclofenac in wastewaters of limpopo province, South Africa

E P Munzhelele et al. Heliyon. .

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the occurrence of efavirenz, levonorgestrel, ibuprofen, and diclofenac in wastewaters of Vhembe and Mopane District Municipalities, Limpopo Province, South Africa. A total of 48 samples were collected at the inlet and outlet of the selected wastewater treatment plants during April, July, and October 2023. The physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and dissolved oxygen of the influent and effluent were determined in the field, while total organic carbon (TOC) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were determined in the laboratory. The LC-20 prominence High-pressure liquid chromatography with a Photo-diode Array (PDA) detector was employed to quantify and profile the targeted pharmaceutical compounds. Levonorgestrel and efavirenz were analyzed using the gradient elution method, while the isocratic method was applied to analyze diclofenac and ibuprofen. The obtained results showed that the concentration ranges for ibuprofen were <LOD-114.00 μg/L (influent) and <LOD-59.9 μg/L (effluent), levonorgestrel: 6.2-8.09 μg/L (influent) and 4.25-20.9 μg/L (effluent), diclofenac: 2.21-25.00 μg/L (influent) and 0.36-5 μg/L (effluent), and efavirenz: 3.81-11.9 μg/L (influent) and 0.69-6.3 μg/L (effluent). The presence of these pharmaceutical contaminants in wastewater, particularly in effluent, requires attention as they may pose significant ecological threats in the receiving water bodies. Therefore, this study recommends the development of efficient wastewater treatment technologies targeting pharmaceutical compounds and further routine monitoring of these compounds in surface water resources, as well as understanding their fate and effects in aquatic organisms.

Keywords: Diclofenac; Efavirenz; High-pressure liquid chromatography; Ibuprofen; Levonorgestrel; Limpopo province; Wastewater treatment plants.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Map showing the location of sampling points (Malamulele (A), Giyani (B), Nkowankowa (C), Tzaneen (D), Kgapane (E), Makhado (F), Siloam (G), and Thohoyandou (H)).
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
HPLC Chromatograms and calibration curves of (a) efavirenz, (b) levonorgestrel (c) diclofenac and (d) ibuprofen.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Average concentrations of efavirenz (a), levonorgestrel (b), diclofenac (c), and Ibuprofen (d) for the three-sampling period.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Levonorgestrel, efavirenz, diclofenac, and ibuprofen removal efficiency by WWTP.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

References

    1. Chafi S., Azzouz A., Ballesteros E. Occurrence and distribution of endocrine disrupting chemicals and pharmaceuticals in the river Bouregreg (Rabat, Morocco) Chemosphere. 2022;287 - PubMed
    1. Morin-Crini N., et al. Removal of emerging contaminants from wastewater using advanced treatments. A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2022:1–43. - PubMed
    1. Munzhelele E.P., et al. Pharmaceutical contaminants in wastewater and receiving water bodies of South Africa: a review of sources, pathways, occurrence, effects, and geographical distribution. Water. 2024;16(6):796.
    1. Godoy A.A., Kummrow F., Pamplin P.A.Z. Occurrence, ecotoxicological effects and risk assessment of antihypertensive pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment-A review. Chemosphere. 2015;138:281–291. - PubMed
    1. Hughes S.R., Kay P., Brown L.E. Global synthesis and critical evaluation of pharmaceutical data sets collected from river systems. Environmental science & technology. 2013;47(2):661–677. - PMC - PubMed

LinkOut - more resources