Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2025 Jan 26;17(3):454.
doi: 10.3390/nu17030454.

Minerals and Human Health: From Deficiency to Toxicity

Mohammed S Razzaque  1 , Sunil J Wimalawansa  2
Affiliations
Review

Minerals and Human Health: From Deficiency to Toxicity

Mohammed S Razzaque et al. Nutrients. .

Abstract

Minerals are essential nutrients that play critical roles in human health by regulating various physiological functions. Examples include bone development, enzyme function, nerve signaling, and the immune response. Both the deficiencies and toxicities of minerals can have significant health implications. Deficiencies in macrominerals such as calcium, magnesium, and phosphate can lead to osteoporosis (associated with falls and fractures), cardiovascular events, and neuromuscular dysfunction. Trace mineral deficiencies, such as iron and zinc. Selenium deficiency impairs oxygen transport, immune function, and antioxidant defenses, contributing to anemia, delaying wound healing, and increasing susceptibility to infectious diseases. Conversely, excessive intake of minerals can have severe health consequences. Hypercalcemia can cause kidney stones and cardiac arrhythmias as well as soft-tissue calcification, whereas excessive iron deposition can lead to oxidative stress and organ/tissue damage. Maintaining adequate mineral levels through a balanced diet, guided supplementation, and monitoring at-risk populations is essential for good health and preventing disorders related to deficiencies and toxicities. Public health interventions and education about dietary sources of minerals are critical for minimizing health risks and ensuring optimal well-being across populations. While a comprehensive analysis of all macro and micronutrients is beyond the scope of this article, we have chosen to focus on calcium, magnesium, and phosphate. We summarize the consequences of deficiency and the adverse events associated with the overconsumption of other minerals.

Keywords: biological functions; calcium; magnesium; micronutrients; nutrients; physiology; public health.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The figure depicts essential minerals with primary functions.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Major physiological and biological regulators and controls are illustrated [Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23)].
Figure 3
Figure 3
Different body systems, tissues, and diseases require varying steady-state serum 25(OH)D concentrations to prevent initiation and progression. The left side of the figure presents the minimum (average) serum 25(OH)D concentrations needed to obtain optimum clinical outcomes. In contrast, the right side depicts the percentage risk reduction for each disease entity [25(OH)D;25-hydroxyvitamin D] (modified from Wimalawansa) [94].
Figure 4
Figure 4
A few important nutrients with approximate total (diet plus supplements) daily requirements during pregnancy and lactation.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Weyh C., Krüger K., Peeling P., Castell L. The Role of Minerals in the Optimal Functioning of the Immune System. Nutrients. 2022;14:644. doi: 10.3390/nu14030644. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Faba L., Gasa J., Tokach M.D., Varella E., Sola-Oriol D. Effects of supplementing organic microminerals and methionine during the rearing phase of replacement gilts on lameness, growth, and body composition. J. Anim. Sci. 2018;96:3274–3287. doi: 10.1093/jas/sky195. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Islam M.R., Islam M.R., Shalahuddin Qusar M.M.A., Islam M.S., Kabir M.H., Mustafizur Rahman G.K.M., Islam M.S., Hasnat A. Alterations of serum macro-minerals and trace elements are associated with major depressive disorder: A case-control study. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18:94. doi: 10.1186/s12888-018-1685-z. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Safiri S., Kolahi A.A., Noori M., Nejadghaderi S.A., Karamzad N., Bragazzi N.L., Sullman M.J.M., Abdollahi M., Collins G.S., Kaufman J.S., et al. Burden of anemia and its underlying causes in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: Results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. J. Hematol. Oncol. 2021;14:185. doi: 10.1186/s13045-021-01202-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Mogire R.M., Muriuki J.M., Morovat A., Mentzer A.J., Webb E.L., Kimita W., Ndungu F.M., Macharia A.W., Cutland C.L., Sirima S.B., et al. Vitamin D Deficiency and Its Association with Iron Deficiency in African Children. Nutrients. 2022;14:1372. doi: 10.3390/nu14071372. - DOI - PMC - PubMed

LinkOut - more resources