Bioactive Potential of Olive Leaf By-Product Throughout In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion

Abstract

Olive leaf, an abundant and underutilized byproduct of the olive industry, has gained attention as a potential functional ingredient due to its high content of dietary fiber and phenolic compounds. However, little is known about its bioaccessibility and transformation throughout the digestive process, limiting its application in food formulations. This study provides a comprehensive and quantitative assessment of how ground olive leaf bioactive compounds behave during gastrointestinal digestion, offering new insights into their stability and potential health benefits. The total phenolics content and antioxidant activity of ground olive leaf increased in the oral and gastric phases, decreasing slightly in the intestinal phase, with a bioaccessibility of 46% and up to 70% for the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, respectively. The principal individual phenolic compounds identified in the intestinal phase were oleuropein, luteolin-7-glycoside, luteolin-6-glycoside and ferulic acid, with bioaccessibilities of up to 97%. The main soluble sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose) and organic acids (succinic, citric, and acetic acids) detected in the olive leaf samples showed different behaviors during gastrointestinal digestion: sugars increased in the oral and gastric phases but decreased in the intestinal phase, with high bioaccessibility despite reduced recovery, while organic acids remained mostly stable, except for citric acid, which decreased significantly in the intestinal phase, all showing close to 100% bioaccessibility. These results provide the first detailed evidence of the digestive fate of ground olive leaf bioactive compounds, reinforcing its potential as a functional ingredient. Its natural availability, without requiring pre-treatment, combined with its high antioxidant potential and bioaccessibility, highlights its relevance for the development of innovative food ingredients, aligning with circular economy principles and sustainable food strategies.

Keywords: agri-food wastes; antioxidant activity; functional food; in vitro digestion; phenolic compounds.

Figure 1

Phenolic compound recovery index (RI%) and total phenol content (TPC) during each stage of the in vitro gastrointestinal tract (GIT) simulation. The means of three separate calculations ± standard deviation are the results. Significant variations between GIT stages are indicated by values with different letters for each parameter (TPC or RI%).

Figure 2

ABTS and ORAC techniques were used to evaluate antioxidant activity at each stage of the in vitro gastrointestinal tract (GIT) simulation. The means of three separate calculations ± standard deviation are the results. Significant variations between GIT phases are indicated by values with different letters within each method.