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. 2025 Feb 24;91(1):10.
doi: 10.5334/aogh.4623. eCollection 2025.

Associations Between Ambient PM2.5 Levels and Children's Pneumonia and Asthma During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Greater Jakarta (Jabodetabek)

Budi Haryanto  1   2 , Bin Jalaludin  3 , Al Asyary  1 , Nathaniel Roestandy  4 , Fajar Nugraha  5
Affiliations

Associations Between Ambient PM2.5 Levels and Children's Pneumonia and Asthma During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Greater Jakarta (Jabodetabek)

Budi Haryanto et al. Ann Glob Health. .

Abstract

Background: Children in Indonesia are especially vulnerable to air pollution due to their developing respiratory systems and unique exposure patterns. As one of the top 50 nations most at risk from environmental degradation, Indonesia faces significant public health concerns, especially in rapidly urbanizing areas such as Greater Jakarta, where emissions from transportation contribute heavily to pollution. This study investigates the relationship between PM2.5 exposure and cases of asthma and pneumonia in children across Greater Jakarta's 11 cities and districts from 2020 to 2022, aiming to provide essential data for health planning and policy. Methods: The data were collected from NafasID's PM2.5 monitoring network and local health offices reporting monthly cases of asthma and pneumonia in children. Analytical methods included correlation and regression modeling to assess the association between air pollution and respiratory health across different regions. The results reveal a high number of respiratory disease, with 73,694 pneumonia and 15,825 asthma cases reported. Results: Average PM2.5 concentration in Greater Jakarta was 42.5 µg/m3, with notable variation between areas. Bekasi District recorded the highest levels, while North Jakarta was lower. Depok City showed the strongest correlation between PM2.5 and pneumonia (r = 0.61, p = 0.004), indicating a sharp increase in cases with rising PM2.5, while other areas showed weaker correlations. Asthma cases had weak-to-moderate correlations with PM2.5, which is largely nonsignificant, suggesting complex factors beyond outdoor air pollution may influence asthma. Conclusion: The findings highlight the critical need for improved air quality measures and targeted public health interventions. Addressing air pollution will be vital for reducing respiratory illness and supporting child health resilience in Indonesia's urban centers.

Keywords: Greater Jakarta; PM2.5 exposure; air pollution and public health; asthma and pneumonia in children; children’s respiratory health.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Figures

PM2.5, children’s asthma and pneumonia in Jakarta, 2020–2022
Figure 1
Annual average of PM2.5 concentration, children’s asthma and pneumonia cases in Greater Jakarta, 2020–2022.
Trend of children’s asthma and pneumonia in Jakarta, 2020–2022
Figure 2
Monthly trend of children’s pneumonia and asthma during the COVID‑19 pandemic in Greater Jakarta, March 2020 to December 2022.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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