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Review
. 2025 Mar 10;14(1):1-17.
doi: 10.1556/2006.2025.00020. Print 2025 Mar 28.

Current interpretations of the I-PACE model of behavioral addictions

Matthias Brand  1   2   3 , Astrid Müller  4 , Elisa Wegmann  1   2 , Stephanie Antons  1   2   3 , Annika Brandtner  1   2 , Silke M Müller  1   2   3 , Rudolf Stark  5   6   7 , Sabine Steins-Loeber  8 , Marc N Potenza  9   10   11   12
Affiliations
Review

Current interpretations of the I-PACE model of behavioral addictions

Matthias Brand et al. J Behav Addict. .

Abstract

Background and aims: The Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model of behavioral addictions is used relatively often as a scientific framework to specify research hypotheses and to interpret empirical findings in behavioral addiction research. There are, however, controversial interpretations in the literature regarding some specific elements of the model, which may require a more precise definition of specific constructs and processes that are central to the I-PACE model.

Methods: This is neither a comprehensive literature review nor a proposal for a new version of the I-PACE model. We aim to provide a selective, critical evaluation of some interpretations of the model and to include recent developments regarding addiction theories and controversial debates.

Results: The role of gratification and compensation and therefore positive and negative reinforcement are specified. The concepts of cue-reactivity and craving are considered in the context of desire thinking and permissive beliefs. The relationships between impulsive, habitual, and compulsive behaviors in behavioral addictions are discussed. The effects of general self-control and situation-specific executive functions are elaborated. Punishment (in)sensitivity is discussed as a further important process potentially involved in behavioral addictions. These constructs and processes (through their interactions) are considered in the context of changes over time in the course of addictive behaviors.

Conclusion: This viewpoint article aims to provide greater precision and clarity regarding some specific elements of the I-PACE model, which may help stimulate research and theory building and advance clinical care in the behavioral addiction field.

Keywords: cue-reactivity and craving; habitual and compulsive behaviors; punishment sensitivity; reinforcement; self-control; theoretical considerations.

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Conflict of interest statement

Conflict of interest: The authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests related to this manuscript. MB, AM, EW, SA, SMM, RS, and SSL receive funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation). MB also receives funding from the EU, and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. MNP has consulted for Opiant Pharmaceuticals, Boehringer Ingelheim, and Baria-Tek; has been involved in a patent application with Yale University and Novartis; has received research support (to Yale) from Mohegan Sun Casino, Children and Screens and the Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling; has participated in surveys, mailings, or telephone consultations related to internet use, addictions, impulse-control disorders or other health topics; has consulted for and/or advised gambling, non-profit and legal entities on issues related to impulse-control/addictive disorders; has provided clinical care in a problem gambling services program; has performed grant reviews for research funding agencies; has edited journals and journal sections; has given academic lectures in grand rounds, CME events, and other clinical or scientific venues; and has generated books or book chapters for publishers of mental health texts.

All authors have performed grant reviews for research-funding agencies; have edited journals and journal sections; have given academic lectures in clinical or scientific venues; and have generated book chapters for publishers of mental health texts. MB, SA, and MNP serve as associate editors of the Journal of Behavioral Addictions.

Figures

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Gratification and compensation related to the severity of addictive behaviors. We argue that both experiences of gratification and compensation while performing the specific behaviors are involved in all stages of behavioral addictions but may vary regarding their relative dominance. While gratification may stay relatively stable (within a range of involvement) compensation may increase over time. The waves indicate that in the course of addictive behaviors, there may be spontaneous (situation-specific) fluctuations of experiences of gratification and compensation and also indicate that over time, the involvement of gratification and compensation may develop non-linearly
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
Cue-awareness, cue-sensitivity, and cue-reactivity as well as desire thinking and craving in addictive behaviors
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.
Seemingly flexible, impulsive, habitual, and compulsive behaviors related to the severity of addictive behaviors. We argue that even in later stages, when habit formation may have contributed to more seemingly habitual and compulsive behaviors, these behaviors may still be considered goal-directed but that the situation-specific goals may change. In severe stages of behavioral addictions, beyond the attractiveness of the specific behaviors, an additional goal could be to avoid negative consequences that are anticipated from not behaving specifically (e.g., to avoid “withdrawal symptoms”)
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
Experienced and anticipated positive and negative consequences directly related to behavior execution (e.g. gaming) and anticipated positive and negative consequences directly related to not behaving specifically (e.g., not gaming). This figure is, however, rather speculative since no clear evidence is available on the potentially different mechanisms of positive/negative and experienced/anticipated consequences. The figure is motivated by theoretical considerations and by clinical observations. The experienced/anticipated consequences may vary substantially between individuals. However, given that this topic is very important in individual treatments, we have generated a figure as an example of how the consequences may relate to each other based on three individual observations with participants (with non-problematic, risky, and addictive behaviors). Note: Anticipated negative consequences of not behaving specifically (e.g., not gaming) may be related to anticipated withdrawal symptoms or negative mood. Anticipated positive consequences of not behaving specifically (e.g., not gaming) may also involve anticipated positive consequences related to other activities (e.g., engaging in sports)
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5.
Self-control and general and situation-specific executive functions in addictive behaviors. General executive functions may impact the complete inner circle (i.e. the affective and cognitive processes in specific situations), and specific executive functions may be directly linked to specific affective and cognitive processes
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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