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. 2025 Feb 22;25(5):1342.
doi: 10.3390/s25051342.

Non-Invasive BCI-VR Applied Protocols as Intervention Paradigms on School-Aged Subjects with ASD: A Systematic Review

Archondoula Alexopoulou  1   2 , Pantelis Pergantis  2   3 , Constantinos Koutsojannis  4 , Vassilios Triantafillou  5 , Athanasios Drigas  2
Affiliations

Non-Invasive BCI-VR Applied Protocols as Intervention Paradigms on School-Aged Subjects with ASD: A Systematic Review

Archondoula Alexopoulou et al. Sensors (Basel). .

Abstract

This paper aims to highlight non-invasive BCI-VR applied protocols as intervention paradigms on school-aged subjects with ASD. Computer-based interventions are considered appropriate for users with ASD as concentration on a screen reduces other stimuli from the environment that are likely to be distracting or disruptive. Since there are no social conditions for engagement in such processes and the responses of computing systems do not hold surprises for users, as the outputs are fully controlled, they are ideal for ASD subjects. Children and adolescents with ASD, when supported by BCI interventions through virtual reality applications, especially appear to show significant improvements in core symptoms, such as cognitive and social deficits, regardless of their age or IQ. We examined nine protocols applied from 2016 to 2023, focusing on the BCI paradigms, the procedure, and the outcomes. Our study is non-exhaustive but representative of the state of the art in the field. As concluded by the research, BCI-VR applied protocols have no side effects and are rather easy to handle and maintain, and despite the fact that there are research limitations, they hold promise as a tool for improving social and cognitive skills in school-aged individuals with ASD.

Keywords: EEG signals; autism spectrum disorder (ASD); brain–computer interface (BCI); emotional regulation; joint attention; memory; neurofeedback (NFT); social skills; virtual reality (VR).

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
A typical BCI system.
Figure 2
Figure 2
BCI types.
Figure 3
Figure 3
PRISMA Flow Diagram.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Gender representation.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Study distribution by country.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Categorised research types.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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