Sensing Microorganisms Using Rapid Detection Methods: Supramolecular Approaches

Abstract

Supramolecular chemistry relies on the dynamic association/dissociation of molecules through non-covalent interactions. These interactions of a self-assembled system can be strategically exploited for sensing several microorganisms. Moreover, supramolecular systems can also be combined with other functional components like nanoparticles, self-assembled monolayers, and microarray systems to produce multicomponent sensors with higher sensitivity and lower detection time. In this review, we will discuss how cutting-edge supramolecular chemistry has enabled scientists to develop microbial biosensors with high reliability and rapid detection time. Moreover, they produce high-throughput operations, real-time monitoring, extensive operation platforms, and cost-effective production. This review can serve as a conceptual background for understanding state-of-the-art rapid detection methods of microbial biosensing.

Keywords: bacteria; biosensing; fungus; pathogen; rapid pathogenic detection; supramolecular sensing; virus.

Figure 4

(a) Infra-red emissive AIEgen TTPV dye molecule (upper inset) for the detection and killing of Gram-positive bacteria [37] (reproduced with permission from Elsevier); (b) chemical structure of G+ and G– bacterial and fungal envelops along with AIEgen dye molecule with donor–π–acceptor (left panel). Naked eye detection of bacterial and fungal strains using the IQ–Cm molecule (adapted from reference [38]); (c) structure of Vancomycin conjugated 800CW dye (left panel), mode of detection using the dye-antibiotic conjugate (adapted from reference [42]); (d) schematic depiction of recognition proteins conjugated with fluorescent tag for imaging HIV particles (adapted from reference [44]).

Figure 1

Schematic representation of supramolecular sensing highlighting components with proper functionality.

Figure 2

(a) Host-guest-based pathogen detection platform. A cationic conjugated fluorescent polymer acts as a sensor probe for pathogens, and from the fluorescent output, the nature of the pathogen is detected [23] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society). (b) FRET-based probe for pathogen detection where binding triggers strong interchain FRET [25] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society).

Figure 3

(a) Antimicrobial peptide (AMP) for the detection of bacterial strains: (A). integrating microelectrode, (B). AMP modified surface, and (C). bacterial binding on surface [29] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society); (b) sandwich assay for antimicrobial peptide with magnetic bead and redox detection probe for the potentiometric detection of Listeria monocytogenes (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society) [30]; and (c) peptide-hydrogel sensor for Influenza virus, using affinity peptide conjugated through click chemistry and antibody tagged with fluorescent probe ((A,C) shows scanning electron microscopic images of hydrogel and virus-bound hydrogel respectively. (B) represents the sensing mechanism of the hydrogel by using a combination of affinity peptide and labeled antibody) [34] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society).

Figure 5

(a) Aptasensing of E. coli using In₂O₃/CeO₂/aptamer hybrid using photoelectrochemical assay [53] (reproduced with permission from Elsevier); (b) Au-nsanoparticle-based surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) adaptive sensor coupled with rolling cycle amplification (RCA) for the detection of E. coli [54] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society); (c) nanoenzyme activity of Au-nanoparticle (AuNP) used for bacterial detection where AG3 aptamers passivate the AuNP surface, and the catalytic activity is lost. Upon the addition of Norovirus, the aptamer is chunked out, and the catalytic activity of AuNP is regained [55] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society).

Figure 6

(a) Hybrid magnetic nanoparticle functionalized with aptamers for the detection of a human Norovirus sample using electrochemical assays. Subfigure (A): synthetic scheme of Au@COF@Fe₃O₄; Subfigure (B): Sensing mechanism of Au@COF@Fe₃O₄ appended with aptamer [63] (reproduced with permission from Elsevier); (b) label-free nanohybrid aptasensor for the detection of Acinetobacter baumannii bacteria by impedance measurements (Subfigure (A,B) shows synthetic scheme of the nanoparticle fabrication and sensing mechanism respectively) [64] (reproduced with permission from Elsevier); and (c) detection scheme of an Anthrax viral genome using nanopore assembly, where the hybridization of an aptamer probe changes the resultant current pattern (adapted from reference [66]).

Figure 7

(a) Lab-on-a-chip detection method by using antibody-functionalized scaffold to detect Candida albicans [71] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society); (b) microfluidic device for accumulating and imaging a trace amount of bacterial strains using antibody-modified magnetic beads [73] (reproduced with permission from Elsevier); (c) fluidic chip for assembly of magnetic beads enables bacterial detection (adapted from reference [74]).

Figure 8

(a) Schematic representation of the detection platform for assaying antibiotic resistance in six bacterial strains through plasmonic nanosensors using machine learning [75] (reproduced with permission from American Chemical Society); (b) AIEgens-graphene oxide adducts for sensing of bacterial strains using machine learning [78] (reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society).