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. 2025 Apr 2;17(1):67.
doi: 10.1186/s13102-025-01117-2.

The effect of time of day and menstrual cycle on physical performance and psychological responses in elite female Tunisian volleyball players

Meher Seddik  1   2 , Mohamed Mansour Bouzourraa  3 , Halil İbrahim Ceylan  4 , Jaouher Hamaidi  3 , Hatem Ghouili  3 , Hamdi Chtourou  5 , Noomen Guelmami  3 , Ismail Dergaa #  1   2 , Raul Ioan Muntean #  6 , Nizar Souissi #  1   2
Affiliations

The effect of time of day and menstrual cycle on physical performance and psychological responses in elite female Tunisian volleyball players

Meher Seddik et al. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. .

Abstract

Background: The influence of circadian rhythms and menstrual cycle phases on athletic performance and psychological responses is critical for optimizing training and competition strategies for female athletes. This study aimed to investigate the effects of time of day and menstrual cycle phases on the physical performance and psychological responses of elite female Tunisian volleyball players.

Methods: Thirteen elite female volleyball players were assessed during three different phases of their menstrual cycle (menstrual, follicular, and luteal) and at two different times of day (morning and evening). Physical performance was evaluated using the Modified Agility Test (MAT), Reactive Agility Test (RAT), and Repeated Sprint Ability (RSA) Test. Psychological responses were measured using the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Hooper's Questionnaire, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, Vis-Morgen Questionnaire, and Spiegel Questionnaire.

Results: Significant effects of menstrual cycle, time of day, and competition on physical performance, cognitive function, mood, and sleep parameters were found. Physical performance, including the Countermovement Jump (CMJ), the Modified Agility T-test (MAT) and the Reactive Agility test (RAT), was higher in the afternoon than in the morning across all menstrual phases (CMJ: p < 0.001, η² = 0.836; MAT: p < 0.001, η² = 0.777; RAT: p < 0.001, η² = 0.859). After the competition, performance decreased significantly, especially in the follicular and luteal phases. As measured by the Stroop test, cognitive function showed significant diurnal effects (p < 0.001, η² = 0.910), with pre-competition performance being better in the afternoon. Mood disturbances (POMS) increased after the competition, especially in the morning and during the luteal phase (p < 0.001, η² = 0.961). Sleep parameters were significantly influenced by time and menstrual cycle, with higher fatigue (Hooper score: p < 0.001, η² = 0.754) and poorer sleep quality (PSQI: p < 0.001, η² = 0.627) in the morning, especially after the competition.

Conclusion: Our results suggest that aligning high-intensity training and competitions with afternoon circadian peaks may enhance physical and cognitive performance in elite female athletes. Recovery strategies and workload adjustments should account for menstrual phases, particularly reducing morning demands during the luteal phase to mitigate fatigue and mood disruptions. Integrating circadian timing with menstrual cycle monitoring offers a practical, evidence-based approach to optimize athlete readiness and resilience.

Keywords: Agility; Circadian rhythm; Fatigue; Mood states; Physical fitness; Psychological tests; Sleep quality; Sprint ability.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Human ethics and consent to participate: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki guidelines and was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the ISSEP Sfax prior to the start of the study. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants after a thorough explanation of the study’s objectives, procedures, benefits, and potential risks. Informed consent: Participants gave written informed consent to participate in the present study and to its publication. Consent for publication: Not Applicable. In preparing this paper, the authors used ChatGPT model 4 on November 11, 2024, to revise some passages of the manuscript, to double-check for any grammar mistakes or improve academic English only [93, 94]. After using this tool, the authors have reviewed and edited the content as necessary and take full responsibility for the content of the publication. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Flow chart
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Effects of time of day (morning vs. afternoon), competition (Pre vs. Post), and menstrual cycle phases (menstrual, follicular, and luteal) on physical performance: Countermovement Jump (CMJ), Movement Agility Test (MAT) time, and Reaction Agility Test (RAT). Significant differences (p-values) are indicated. Data are presented as mean ± SD
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Effects of time of day (morning vs. afternoon), competition (Pre vs. Post), and menstrual cycle phases (menstrual, follicular, and luteal) on STROOP test: planche 1, planche 2 and planche 3. Significant differences (p-values) are indicated. Data are presented as mean ± SD
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Effects of time of day (morning vs. afternoon), competition (Pre vs. Post), and menstrual cycle phases (menstrual, follicular, and luteal) on Total Mood Disturbance of POMS. Significant differences (p-values) are indicated. Data are presented as mean ± SD
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Effects of time of day (morning vs. afternoon), competition (Pre vs. Post) and menstrual cycle phases (menstrual, follicular, and luteal) on HOOPER test, PSQI, ESS and SIGEL. Significant differences (p-values) are indicated. Data are presented as mean ± SD
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Effects of time of day (morning vs. afternoon), competition (Pre vs. Post) and menstrual cycle phases (menstrual, follicular, and luteal) on RPE and % AVG HR. Significant differences (p-values) are indicated. Data are presented as mean ± SD
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