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. 2025 Apr;93(4):e70071.
doi: 10.1111/aji.70071.

Effect of COVID-19 Infection During Pregnancy on the Plasma/Extracellular Vesicles Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Profile

Affiliations

Effect of COVID-19 Infection During Pregnancy on the Plasma/Extracellular Vesicles Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Profile

C Heeralall et al. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2025 Apr.

Abstract

Purpose: The Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has impacted pregnant women significantly, with increased mortality and morbidity. The implications of this virus are linked to extracellular vesicles (EVs) and maternal inflammation due to the cytokine storm. Hence, this study aims to investigate the impact of COVID-19 on the pro-inflammatory cytokine profile in both plasma and EVs of South African pregnant women.

Methods: Plasma samples were obtained from pregnant women in the third trimester, from which EVs were extracted using the Invitrogen Total Exosome Isolation Kit. These plasma-derived EVs were characterised using transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA).

Results: COVID-19 infection in pregnancy did not significantly affect the average particle size and concentration of isolated EVs. The levels of IFN gamma, IL-6, MIP-1 alpha and TNF alpha were analysed in the plasma and circulating EVs through a multiplex assay. Compared to the control group, a significant increase in IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α and MIP-1α levels were observed in both plasma and EVs content of COVID-19 pregnancies.

Conclusion: These findings suggest that COVID-19 infection impacts the pro-inflammatory cytokine profile in the plasma and EVs of South African pregnant women.

Keywords: COVID‐19; cytokine storm; extracellular vesicles; inflammation; pregnancy.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Transmission Electron microscopy images of EVs from (A) Covid +ve pregnancy showing oval‐shaped vesicles (scale bar 100 nm). (B) Covid −ve pregnancy showing round‐shaped vesicles (scale bar 50  nm). Lines indicate individual EVs and circular lipoprotein aggregates are also present with the isolated EVs.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2
Graphical representation of the particle size distribution of EVs isolated from plasma of (A) COVID‐19 +ve pregnancies (B) COVID‐19 −ve pregnancies. This monodispersion size distribution obtained from Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis highlights the particle size distribution and concentration of the plasma‐derived EVs.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3
Pro‐inflammatory cytokine level in EVs isolated from COVID‐19 −/+ pregnant women. Data represented as mean ± STD, (n = 10). * p < 0.05.

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