Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2025 Jul;34(7):1326-1349.
doi: 10.1002/hec.4962. Epub 2025 Apr 10.

Anxious Dads and Depressed Moms: Child Disability and the Mental Health of Parents

Derek Asuman  1   2 , Tinna Laufey Ásgeirsdóttir  2 , Johan Jarl  3
Affiliations

Anxious Dads and Depressed Moms: Child Disability and the Mental Health of Parents

Derek Asuman et al. Health Econ. 2025 Jul.

Abstract

Having a child with a disability undoubtedly affects parents in many ways, including their well-being. However, the specific mental health trajectories of parents, differentiated by the severity of impairments and parental roles, remain under-explored. We investigate the mental-health effects of having a child with a disability. Using individual-level register data from Sweden, we exploit the epidemiological features of Cerebral Palsy (CP) to estimate causal effects. Results show that prescriptions for mental-health disorders increase after the birth of a child with CP. While fathers are more likely to be dispensed anti-anxiety medications, dispensed medications for anti-depressants increase for mothers. Further, the effects are larger for parents of children with severe impairments but do not differ across parental characteristics. Our findings highlight the need for support and assistance for families with children with disabilities.

Keywords: Sweden; anxiety; cerebral palsy; children; depression; disability; event study; mental health; parental penalty; sleeping disorders.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Impact of having a child with CP on mental health‐related medications. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcome is dispensed medication related to anxiety, sleep disorders, and depression. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2
Impact of having a child with CP on dispensed anti‐psychotics. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcome is dispensed anti‐psychotic. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child's CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3
Impact of having a child with CP on dispensed anxiolytics. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcome is dispensed anxiolytics for anxiety‐related conditions. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child's CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 4
Impact of having a child with CP on dispensed hypnotics and sedatives. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcome is dispensed hypnotics and sedatives used for the treatment of sleep disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child's CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 5
Impact of having a child with CP on dispensed anti‐depressants. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcome is dispensed anti‐depressants. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child's CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A1
FIGURE A1
Total effect of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medication for various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the total effect of having a child with CP compared to having a child without CP estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A2
FIGURE A2
Impact of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medications related to various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1) and disaggregated by parental age at birth. Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A3
FIGURE A3
Impact of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medication related to various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1) and disaggregated by parental educational attainment 2 years prior to the birth of the child. Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A4
FIGURE A4
Impact of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medications related to various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1) and disaggregated by parental disposable 2 years prior to the birth of the child. Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A5
FIGURE A5
Impact of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medications related to various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1) and disaggregated by parental disposable 2 years prior to the birth of the child. Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A6
FIGURE A6
Impact of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medications related to various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1) and disaggregated by gross motor functioning ability of the child with CP. Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A7
FIGURE A7
Impact of having a child with CP on parental mental health. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are dispensed medications related to various mental‐health disorders. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1) and disaggregated by manual ability of the child with CP. Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A8
FIGURE A8
Parental healthcare utilization. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are the likelihood and frequency of use of in‐ and out‐patient healthcare visits. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A9
FIGURE A9
Impact of having a child with CP on parental addiction behavior. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcomes are diagnosis for psychoactive substance abuse and dispensed anti‐addiction medications. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
FIGURE A10
FIGURE A10
Impact of having a child with CP on dispensed medication cost. Event study estimates for mothers (Panel A) and fathers (Panel B). The outcome is the total cost of dispensed medications for mental‐health‐related conditions. The plot shows the coefficients of the interaction terms between event times and child CP status estimated by Equation (1). Spikes show the 95% confidence intervals. The regression includes controls for event‐time dummies, calendar year, and age dummies.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

References

    1. Adhvaryu, A. , Daysal N. M., Gunnsteinsson S., Molina T., and Steingrimsdottir H.. 2023. Child Health, Parental Well‐Being, and the Social Safety Net. Technical report. National Bureau of Economic Research.
    1. Ahammer, A. , Glogowsky U., Halla M., and Hener T.. 2023. “The Parenthood Penalty in Mental Health: Evidence From Austria and Denmark.” IZA Discussion Paper No. 16459. https://docs.iza.org/dp16459.pdf.
    1. Ahlström, G. , and Wadensten B.. 2011. “Family Members’ Experiences of Personal Assistance Given to a Relative With Disabilities.” Health and Social Care in the Community 19, no. 6: 645–652. 10.1111/j.1365-2524.2011.01006.x. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Andrén, E. , and Grimby G.. 2004. “Dependence in Daily Activities and Life Satisfaction in Adult Subjects With Cerebral Palsy or Spina Bifida: A Follow‐Up Study.” Disability & Rehabilitation 26, no. 9: 528–536. 10.1080/09638280410001672490. - DOI - PubMed
    1. Asuman, D. , Gerdtham U.‐G., Alriksson‐Schmidt A. I., Nordin M., and Jarl J.. 2024a. “Child Disability and Parental Labour Market Outcomes: Evidence From Sweden.” Available at SSRN 4760457. 10.2139/ssrn.4760457. - DOI