Advancements in Antimicrobial Textiles: Fabrication, Mechanisms of Action, and Applications

Abstract

Within the past decade, much attention has been drawn to antimicrobial textiles due to their vast potential for reducing the spread of infectious diseases and improving hygiene standards in various environments. This review paper discusses recent studies on preparation methods, modes of action, effectiveness against different microorganisms, and applications of antimicrobial textiles in diverse industries. It examines further challenges, including durability, environmental impact, and regulatory considerations, and looks at prospects for developing and integrating these novel materials. This paper intends to provide a broad-based understanding of state-of-the-art technologies and emerging trends in antimicrobial textiles by integrating existing knowledge and highlighting recent advances in this field that contribute much to improved public health and safety.

Figure 1

Preparation of fully bio-based photodynamic eco-textiles. Reproduced with permission from Lv et al. Copyright 2024, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 2

Schematic of (a) the emulsification process of oil and (b) application of a natural soft finish to textile. Reproduced with permission from Noor et al. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Figure 3

Specific strategy to prepare antibacterial superhydrophobic textiles. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al. Copyright 2017, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 4

Schematic presentation of the general procedure for antimicrobial fabric preparation. Reproduced with permission from Vojnits et al. Copyright 2024, MDPI.

Figure 5

Preparation steps for TiO₂ NPs coated antibacterial cotton textile. (1) The surface of the CF is first modified with an inorganic base solution to obtain the hydroxyl (-OH) group on the fabric, which helps the TiO₂ NPs adhesion to the fabric through hydrogen bonding. (2) A distilled water rinse step to wash away excess NaOH from the fabric. (3) A colloidal solution containing Anatase TiO₂ NPs was prepared using glacial acetic acid and methanol as carrier solutions mixed in distilled water. The fabric is dip-coated in the solution and sonicated to reduce agglomerates and introduce the NPs to the pretreated fabric. (4) pH adjustment and Acid neutralization using HNO₃ [pH: 6.8–7.2]. (5) Fabric drying at 100 °C to ensure evaporation of solvents, leaving the TiO₂ NPs only on the textile. (6) UV activation of the photocatalytic TiO₂ NPs (to maximize antimicrobial effect). Reproduced with permission from Salama et al. Copyright 2024, Sage Journals.

Figure 6

Process flow for plasma induced graft polymerization of DADMAC on NyCo fabric. Reproduced with permission from Malshe et al. Copyright 2012, Springer.

Figure 7

Schematic representation of screen printing of RL-CuO NPs onto the fabric. Photographs of screen-printed (a) polypropylene and (b) CFs. Reproduced with permission from Haripriya et al. Copyright 2024, IOPSCIENCE.

Figure 8

(a) Grafting reaction of methacrylate functions on tannic acid, (b) Schematic representation of the two-step process to functionalize fabrics with methacrylated tannic acid. Reproduced with permission from Fouilloux et al. Copyright 2024, MDPI. (c) Schematic illustration of the preparation process of BF-Z textile. Reproduced with permission from Fang et al. Copyright 2024, ACS Publications. (d) Illustration of the fabrication of antibacterial cotton textiles. Reproduced with permission from Li et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 9

Schematic presentation of plasma-induced graft polymerization: (a) process and (b) mechanism of attachment of Diallyldimethylammonium chloride (DADMAC) on polypropylene (PP) nonwoven by plasma activation. Reproduced with permission from Naebe et al. Copyright 2022, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 10

(a) Schematic diagram of twin-screw extrusion melt blending method and (b) Spunbond nonwoven fabric production process diagram. Reproduced with permission from Zhang et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 11

Schematic diagram of fabrication of Silver NPs (nAg)- (wool keratin/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)) WK/PVA nanofibrous membrane on CF by ES. Reproduced with permission from Hassan et al. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society.

Figure 12

Steps involved in a sol-gel process. Reproduced with permission from Periyasamy et al. Copyright 2024, the Authors.

Figure 13

(a) The preparation process of LbL/Lyocell fabrics. Reproduced with permission from Wang et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd. (b) Schematic diagram of the fabrication process of the PLCS CF. Reproduced with permission from Wang et al. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Figure 14

Antibacterial mechanisms of metal ions and NPs. The central modes of action are (1) release of metal ions from the metal NPs and (2) direct interaction of the metal ions and/or (3) metal NPs with the cell wall through electrostatic interactions, leading to impaired membrane function and impaired nutrient assimilation; (4) formation of extracellular and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and damage of lipids, proteins, and DNA by oxidative stress; (5) high-levels of metal-binding to the cell envelope and high ROS levels can cause damage to the plasma membrane and thus lead to the leakage of the cell content; (6, 7) upon metal uptake, metal NPs, and metal ions can directly interfere with both proteins and DNA, impairing their function and disturbing the cellular metabolism in addition to metal-mediated ROS production. Reproduced with permission from Godoy-Gallardo et al. Copyright 2021, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 15

Structural presentation of selected antimicrobial agents for textiles.

Figure 16

Schematic presentation of the dye extractions and jute fabric dyeing with neem wood waste powder. Reproduced with permission from Mia et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 17

Steps for the formation of nanofibers based on CA and CA/HBP composites. Reproduced with permission from Sharaf et al. Copyright 2018, Springer Nature.

Figure 18

Effectiveness of the fabric coded F-P6 against S. aureus after washing (A: 10 cycles washing, B: 5 cycles washing, C: 1 cycle washing, D: unwashing) since it has a lower bacterial concentration than the one, we first set. Reproduced with permission from Yaman Turan and Aydin. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature (under Creative Commons CC BY license).

Figure 19

Schematic of synthesizing core-shell structures of PDA@Cur. Reproduced with permission from Azizi et al. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature.

Figure 20

Synthesis of diammonium phosphate octadecyl citrate (DAPOC). Reproduced with permission from Sharif et al. Copyright 2024, RSC (open access article licensed under a Creative Commons license).

Figure 21

Schematic diagram of reaction between CF and SA-TSA NPs. Reproduced with permission from Kim et al. Copyright 2010, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 22

(a) The optical images of E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa on agar plates of different samples. (b) The quantitative analysis of bactericidal activity for different samples against E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa. (c) The antibacterial effect of PP-AA-CS-TCL nonwoven against E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa after disinfection 3 times with boiling water, 75% alcohol and 40x diluted 84 disinfectants for 5 min each. (d) The quantitative analysis of the bactericidal activity of PP-AA-CS-TCL nonwoven against E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa after 3x disinfection. Reproduced with permission from Hu et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 23

AE values of PAN, P-Oxime, P-Oxime-RG19, P-Oxime-RG19-PHMB nanofiber membranes against E. coli. Reproduced with permission from Le et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 24

Synthetic route of APPEM (a) and the preparation process of antibacterial CF (b). Reproduced with permission from Ma et al. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Figure 25

Illustration of the UV effect on photocatalytic TiO₂ NPs, forming reactive oxygen species that act against microbial cells and lead to cell death. Reproduced with permission from Salama et al. Copyright 2024, Sage Journals.

Figure 26

(a) Comparison of bacteria-killing and bacteria-releasing properties of Au-TA/Fe-PNIP surfaces against E. coli before and after storage in air or PBS for 10 days. (b) Summary of killing efficiencies and release fractions of different substrates coated with TA/Fe-PNIP hybrid films. Data are mean ± SD (n = 3). Reproduced with permission from Wang et al. Copyright 2019, ACS Publications.

Figure 27

Antimicrobial activity of the RL-CuO screen-printed polypropylene fabric (a) S. aureus and (b) E. coli and antimicrobial activity of RL-CuO screen-printed CF on (c) S. aureus and (d) E. coli. Reproduced with permission from Haripriya et al. Copyright 2024, IOPSCIENCE.

Figure 28

Schematic illustration of the formation of the BC@CeO₂NPs membranes with combined antibacterial and antioxidant activities. (a) The synthesis begins with the harvesting of K. Xylinum culture for 3 days to obtain the BC membrane. (b) After cleaning, the membranes are dried via two different methods, namely solvent evaporation at room-temperature (RD) or freeze-drying by sublimation of the frozen solvent (FD). (c) The microwave-assisted in situ chemical synthesis of crystalline CeO₂NPs covalently linked to the BC structure takes place via incorporation of the Ce³⁺ precursor in the wet (undried) BC membrane and further pH increase. These result in stable BC@CeO₂NPs membranes that are dried as in B. Reproduced with permission from Tang et al. Copyright 2024, Wiley.

Figure 29

Fabrication of antibacterial NFs-embedded textiles. (a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of antibacterial NFs-embedded textiles and their application in sportswear. (b) SEM image of fiber-mesh. (c) SEM image of the NFs-embedded yarn and (d) NFs-embedded fabric. Reproduced with permission from Qui et al. Copyright 2020, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Figure 30

Percentage of Staphylococcus aureus growth inhibition (I%) of the samples at the end of the finishing and after the washing and tumbler drying cycles of the five knitting structures with antimicrobial functionalization by the extrusion method (a) and by fiber exhaust method (b). Error bars represent standard deviations (SD). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between knitting structures (p < 0.05). Reproduced with permission from Pintu et al. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Figure 31

Antibacterial performance of the polydopamine/tobramycin composite membrane (M4) under different contact times. Reproduced with permission from Ye et al. Copyright 2024, Elsevier Science Ltd.