Epigenetic timing effects on child developmental outcomes: a longitudinal meta-regression of findings from the Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics Consortium

doi:10.1186/s13073-025-01451-7

Meta-Analysis

. 2025 Apr 14;17(1):39.

doi: 10.1186/s13073-025-01451-7.

Epigenetic timing effects on child developmental outcomes: a longitudinal meta-regression of findings from the Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics Consortium

Alexander Neumann¹, Sara Sammallahti^{2

3}, Marta Cosin-Tomas^{4

5

6}, Sarah E Reese⁷, Matthew Suderman⁸, Silvia Alemany^{9

10

11}, Catarina Almqvist¹², Sandra Andrusaityte¹³, Syed H Arshad¹⁴, Marian J Bakermans-Kranenburg¹⁵, Lawrence Beilin¹⁶, Carrie Breton¹⁷, Mariona Bustamante^{4

5

6}, Darina Czamara¹⁸, Dana Dabelea¹⁹, Celeste Eng²⁰, Brenda Eskenazi²¹, Bernard F Fuemmeler²², Frank D Gilliland²³, Regina Grazuleviciene¹³, Siri E Håberg²⁴, Gunda Herberth²⁵, Nina Holland²⁶, Amy Hough²⁷, Donglei Hu²⁸, Karen Huen²⁶, Anke Hüls^{29

30

31}, Marjo-Riitta Jarvelin^{32

33

34

35}, Jianping Jin³⁶, Jordi Julvez³⁷, Berthold V Koletzko³⁸, Gerard H Koppelman³⁹, Inger Kull⁴⁰, Xueling Lu⁴¹, Léa Maitre^{42

5

43}, Dan Mason²⁷, Erik Melén⁴⁴, Simon K Merid⁴⁴, Peter L Molloy⁴⁵, Trevor A Mori¹⁶, Rosa H Mulder⁴⁶, Christian M Page⁴⁷, Rebecca C Richmond⁸, Stefan Röder²⁵, Jason P Ross⁴⁸, Laura Schellhas⁴⁹, Sylvain Sebert⁵⁰, Dean Sheppard⁵¹, Harold Snieder⁴¹, Anne P Starling⁵², Dan J Stein⁵³, Gwen Tindula⁵⁴, Marinus H van IJzendoorn^{55

56

57}, Judith Vonk^{58

59}, Esther Walton⁶⁰, Jonathan Witonsky⁶¹, Cheng-Jian Xu^{62

63}, Ivana V Yang⁶⁴, Paul D Yousefi⁸, Heather J Zar⁶⁵, Ana C Zenclussen²⁵, Hongmei Zhang⁶⁶, Henning Tiemeier^{67

68}, Stephanie J London⁶⁹, Janine F Felix^{70

71}, Charlotte Cecil^{67

72

73}

Affiliations

¹ Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands. a.neumann@erasmusmc.nl.
² Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
³ Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.
⁴ ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain.
⁵ Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain.
⁶ CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Madrid, Spain.
⁷ Clinical Research Practice, Westat, Rockville, MD, USA.
⁸ Bristol Medical School, Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
⁹ Psychiatric Genetics Unit, Group of Psychiatry, Mental Health and Addictions, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain.
¹⁰ Department of Mental Health, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain.
¹¹ Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
¹² Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
¹³ Department of Environmental Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania.
¹⁴ Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
¹⁵ William James Center for Research, ISPA-Instituto Universitário, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁶ Medical School, Royal Perth Hospital Unit, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
¹⁷ Population and Public Health Sciences, Environmental Health, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
¹⁸ Department Genes and Environment, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.
¹⁹ Lifecourse Epidemiology of Adiposity and Diabetes (LEAD) Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA.
²⁰ Department of Medicine, Pulmonary, Critical Care, Allergy and Sleep, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
²¹ Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, USA.
²² Family Medicine and Population Health, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA.
²³ Depatment of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck Schools of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
²⁴ Centre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
²⁵ Department of Environmental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
²⁶ Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Children'S Environmental Health Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, USA.
²⁷ Born in Bradford, Bradford Institute for Health Research, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, UK.
²⁸ Department of Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
²⁹ Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
³⁰ Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
³¹ Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
³² MRC Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.
³³ Research Unit of Population Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
³⁴ Unit of Primary Care, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland.
³⁵ Department of Life Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, London, UK.
³⁶ Public Health Practice, WESTAT, Research Triangle Park, Raleigh, NC, USA.
³⁷ Clinical and Epidemiological Neuroscience (NeuroÈpia), Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Tarragona, Spain.
³⁸ Department of Paediatrics, Division of Metabolic and Nutritional Medicine, Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU - Ludwig Maximilians Universitaet Muenchen, Munich, Germany.
³⁹ Department of Pediatric Pulmonology and Pediatric Allergology, Beatrix Children'S Hospital and GRIAC Research Institute, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
⁴⁰ Department of Clinical Sciences and Education, Södersjukhuset, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁴¹ Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
⁴² Environment and Health over the Lifecourse Program, Isglobal, Barcelona, Spain.
⁴³ CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Barcelona, Spain.
⁴⁴ Department for Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁴⁵ Health and Biosecurity, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.
⁴⁶ Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
⁴⁷ Department of Physical Health and Ageing, Division for Physical and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
⁴⁸ Human Health, Health and Biosecurity, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.
⁴⁹ School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
⁵⁰ Research Unit of Population Health, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
⁵¹ Department of Medicine, Critical Care, Allergy and Sleep, University of California, PulmonarySan Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
⁵² Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, USA.
⁵³ SAMRC Unit on Risk & Resilience in Mental Disorders, Dept of Psychiatry & Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
⁵⁴ Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, USA.
⁵⁵ Research Department of Clinical, Education and Health Psychology, Faculty of Brain Sciences, UCL, London, UK.
⁵⁶ Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health, Psychiatry Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
⁵⁷ Faculty of Psychology and Humanities, Universidad San Sebastián, Valdivia, Chile.
⁵⁸ Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
⁵⁹ GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
⁶¹ Department of Pediatrics, Allergy, Immunology and BMT, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
⁶² Centre for Individualised Infection Medicine (Ciim), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Hannover Medical School (MHH), Hanover, Germany.
⁶³ Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), TWINCORE, Hannover Medical School (MHH), Hanover, Germany.
⁶⁴ Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA.
⁶⁵ SAMRC Unit on Child Health, Dept of Paediatrics, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
⁶⁶ Epidemiology, Biostatistics, School of Public Health, And Environmental Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, USA.
⁶⁷ Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁶⁸ Department of Social and Behavioral Science, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA.
⁶⁹ Immunity Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, USA.
⁷⁰ Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁷¹ Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁷² Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁷³ Department of Biomedical Data Sciences, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands.

PMID: 40229801
PMCID: PMC11995515
DOI: 10.1186/s13073-025-01451-7

Meta-Analysis

Epigenetic timing effects on child developmental outcomes: a longitudinal meta-regression of findings from the Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics Consortium

Alexander Neumann et al. Genome Med. 2025.

. 2025 Apr 14;17(1):39.

doi: 10.1186/s13073-025-01451-7.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands. a.neumann@erasmusmc.nl.
² Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
³ Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.
⁴ ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain.
⁵ Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain.
⁶ CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Madrid, Spain.
⁷ Clinical Research Practice, Westat, Rockville, MD, USA.
⁸ Bristol Medical School, Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
⁹ Psychiatric Genetics Unit, Group of Psychiatry, Mental Health and Addictions, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain.
¹⁰ Department of Mental Health, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain.
¹¹ Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
¹² Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
¹³ Department of Environmental Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania.
¹⁴ Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
¹⁵ William James Center for Research, ISPA-Instituto Universitário, Lisbon, Portugal.
¹⁶ Medical School, Royal Perth Hospital Unit, the University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
¹⁷ Population and Public Health Sciences, Environmental Health, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
¹⁸ Department Genes and Environment, Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.
¹⁹ Lifecourse Epidemiology of Adiposity and Diabetes (LEAD) Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA.
²⁰ Department of Medicine, Pulmonary, Critical Care, Allergy and Sleep, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
²¹ Center for Environmental Research and Community Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, USA.
²² Family Medicine and Population Health, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA.
²³ Depatment of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck Schools of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA.
²⁴ Centre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
²⁵ Department of Environmental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
²⁶ Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Children'S Environmental Health Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, USA.
²⁷ Born in Bradford, Bradford Institute for Health Research, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, UK.
²⁸ Department of Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, USA.
²⁹ Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
³⁰ Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
³¹ Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA.
³² MRC Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK.
³³ Research Unit of Population Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
³⁴ Unit of Primary Care, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland.
³⁵ Department of Life Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, London, UK.
³⁶ Public Health Practice, WESTAT, Research Triangle Park, Raleigh, NC, USA.
³⁷ Clinical and Epidemiological Neuroscience (NeuroÈpia), Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Tarragona, Spain.
³⁸ Department of Paediatrics, Division of Metabolic and Nutritional Medicine, Hauner Children's Hospital, LMU - Ludwig Maximilians Universitaet Muenchen, Munich, Germany.
³⁹ Department of Pediatric Pulmonology and Pediatric Allergology, Beatrix Children'S Hospital and GRIAC Research Institute, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
⁴⁰ Department of Clinical Sciences and Education, Södersjukhuset, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁴¹ Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
⁴² Environment and Health over the Lifecourse Program, Isglobal, Barcelona, Spain.
⁴³ CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Barcelona, Spain.
⁴⁴ Department for Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
⁴⁵ Health and Biosecurity, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.
⁴⁶ Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
⁴⁷ Department of Physical Health and Ageing, Division for Physical and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
⁴⁸ Human Health, Health and Biosecurity, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.
⁴⁹ School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
⁵⁰ Research Unit of Population Health, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
⁵¹ Department of Medicine, Critical Care, Allergy and Sleep, University of California, PulmonarySan Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
⁵² Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, USA.
⁵³ SAMRC Unit on Risk & Resilience in Mental Disorders, Dept of Psychiatry & Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
⁵⁴ Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, USA.
⁵⁵ Research Department of Clinical, Education and Health Psychology, Faculty of Brain Sciences, UCL, London, UK.
⁵⁶ Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health, Psychiatry Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
⁵⁷ Faculty of Psychology and Humanities, Universidad San Sebastián, Valdivia, Chile.
⁵⁸ Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
⁵⁹ GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
⁶¹ Department of Pediatrics, Allergy, Immunology and BMT, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
⁶² Centre for Individualised Infection Medicine (Ciim), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Hannover Medical School (MHH), Hanover, Germany.
⁶³ Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), TWINCORE, Hannover Medical School (MHH), Hanover, Germany.
⁶⁴ Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA.
⁶⁵ SAMRC Unit on Child Health, Dept of Paediatrics, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
⁶⁶ Epidemiology, Biostatistics, School of Public Health, And Environmental Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, USA.
⁶⁷ Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁶⁸ Department of Social and Behavioral Science, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA.
⁶⁹ Immunity Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, USA.
⁷⁰ Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁷¹ Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁷² Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
⁷³ Department of Biomedical Data Sciences, Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands.

PMID: 40229801
PMCID: PMC11995515
DOI: 10.1186/s13073-025-01451-7

Abstract

Background: DNA methylation (DNAm) is a developmentally dynamic epigenetic process; yet, most epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) have examined DNAm at only one timepoint or without systematic comparisons between timepoints. Thus, it is unclear whether DNAm alterations during certain developmental periods are more informative than others for health outcomes, how persistent epigenetic signals are across time, and whether epigenetic timing effects differ by outcome.

Methods: We applied longitudinal meta-regression models to published meta-analyses from the PACE consortium that examined DNAm at two timepoints-prospectively at birth and cross-sectionally in childhood-in relation to the same child outcome (ADHD symptoms, general psychopathology, sleep duration, BMI, asthma). These models allowed systematic comparisons of effect sizes and statistical significance between timepoints. Furthermore, we tested correlations between DNAm regression coefficients to assess the consistency of epigenetic signals across time and outcomes. Finally, we performed robustness checks, estimated between-study heterogeneity, and tested pathway enrichment.

Results: Our findings reveal three new insights: (i) across outcomes, DNAm effect sizes are consistently larger in childhood cross-sectional analyses compared to prospective analyses at birth; (ii) higher effect sizes do not necessarily translate into more significant findings, as associations also become noisier in childhood for most outcomes (showing larger standard errors in cross-sectional vs prospective analyses); and (iii) DNAm signals are highly time-specific, while also showing evidence of shared associations across health outcomes (ADHD symptoms, general psychopathology, and asthma). Notably, these observations could not be explained by sample size differences and only partly to differential study-heterogeneity. DNAm sites changing associations were enriched for neural pathways.

Conclusions: Our results highlight developmentally-specific associations between DNAm and child health outcomes, when assessing DNAm at birth vs childhood. This implies that EWAS results from one timepoint are unlikely to generalize to another. Longitudinal studies with repeated epigenetic assessments are direly needed to shed light on the dynamic relationship between DNAm, development and health, as well as to enable the creation of more reliable and generalizable epigenetic biomarkers. More broadly, this study underscores the importance of considering the time-varying nature of DNAm in epigenetic research and supports the potential existence of epigenetic "timing effects" on child health.

Keywords: ADHD; Asthma; BMI; Child psychiatry; DNA methylation; Epigenetics; Longitudinal analysis; Meta-analysis; Pediatrics; Sleep.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The Erasmus MC Medical Ethics Review Committee (approval number MEC-2012-165) and respective local ethics committees approved the studies included in the meta-analysis and all studies obtained informed consent, only publicly available data has been used for the analyses. See original publications for details [7–9, 18, 19]. This research confirms with the principles of the Helsinki Declaration. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare that they do not have any competing interests.

Figures

**Fig. 1**
Mean effect sizes and statistical significance for DNAm at birth and in childhood. Mean effect sizes (left column) and mean statistical significance (right column) across all tested autosomal DNAm sites per outcome (color) and timepoint. Upper row displays results from analyses utilizing the maximum available sample sizes. Lower row displays results from analyses with cohorts removed to achieve equal sample sizes at both timepoints. Effect size is given as absolute regression coefficient (|‾β|), representing the difference in child health outcomes in SD between full or no methylation in the case of continuous outcomes (ADHD, general psychopathology, sleep duration, and BMI), or log(odds ratio) for categorical outcomes (asthma diagnosis). Statistical significance is given as mean absolute Z-values

**Fig. 2**
QQ-plots. Distribution of observed p-values (y-axis) vs expected (x-axis). Diagonal represents the expected distribution of p-values by chance. Upwards deviations indicate a higher presence of lower p-values than expected assuming a null effect. Distributions are given for DNAm effects at birth (left), in childhood (middle), and for change in effect between birth and childhood (right) per outcome (color). Gray displays the 95% confidence interval of the null distribution

**Fig. 3**
Correlations between DNAm effects at birth and childhood and across outcomes. This correlation matrix displays Spearman correlations between regression coefficients for DNAm at birth and childhood and across outcomes. Intensity of red represents higher positive correlations and blue lower negative correlations

See this image and copyright information in PMC

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References

1. Min JL, Hemani G, Hannon E, Dekkers KF, Castillo-Fernandez J, Luijk R, et al. Genomic and phenotypic insights from an atlas of genetic effects on DNA methylation. Nat Genet. 2021;53:1311–21. - PMC - PubMed
1. Czamara D, Eraslan G, Page CM, Lahti J, Lahti-Pulkkinen M, Hämäläinen E, et al. Integrated analysis of environmental and genetic influences on cord blood DNA methylation in new-borns. Nat Commun. 2019;10:1–18. - PMC - PubMed
1. Joubert BR, Felix JF, Yousefi P, Bakulski KM, Just AC, Breton C, et al. DNA methylation in newborns and maternal smoking in pregnancy: genome-wide consortium meta-analysis. Am J Hum Genet. 2016;98:680–96. - PMC - PubMed
1. Czamara D, Neufang A, Dieterle R, Iurato S, Arloth J, Martins J, et al. Effects of stressful life-events on DNA methylation in panic disorder and major depressive disorder. Clin Epigenetics. 2022;14:55. - PMC - PubMed
1. Rider CF, Carlsten C. Air pollution and DNA methylation: effects of exposure in humans. Clin Epigenetics. 2019;11:131. - PMC - PubMed

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[1] Min JL, Hemani G, Hannon E, Dekkers KF, Castillo-Fernandez J, Luijk R, et al. Genomic and phenotypic insights from an atlas of genetic effects on DNA methylation. Nat Genet. 2021;53:1311–21. - PMC - PubMed

[2] Min JL, Hemani G, Hannon E, Dekkers KF, Castillo-Fernandez J, Luijk R, et al. Genomic and phenotypic insights from an atlas of genetic effects on DNA methylation. Nat Genet. 2021;53:1311–21. - PMC - PubMed

[3] Czamara D, Eraslan G, Page CM, Lahti J, Lahti-Pulkkinen M, Hämäläinen E, et al. Integrated analysis of environmental and genetic influences on cord blood DNA methylation in new-borns. Nat Commun. 2019;10:1–18. - PMC - PubMed

[4] Czamara D, Eraslan G, Page CM, Lahti J, Lahti-Pulkkinen M, Hämäläinen E, et al. Integrated analysis of environmental and genetic influences on cord blood DNA methylation in new-borns. Nat Commun. 2019;10:1–18. - PMC - PubMed

[5] Joubert BR, Felix JF, Yousefi P, Bakulski KM, Just AC, Breton C, et al. DNA methylation in newborns and maternal smoking in pregnancy: genome-wide consortium meta-analysis. Am J Hum Genet. 2016;98:680–96. - PMC - PubMed

[6] Joubert BR, Felix JF, Yousefi P, Bakulski KM, Just AC, Breton C, et al. DNA methylation in newborns and maternal smoking in pregnancy: genome-wide consortium meta-analysis. Am J Hum Genet. 2016;98:680–96. - PMC - PubMed

[7] Czamara D, Neufang A, Dieterle R, Iurato S, Arloth J, Martins J, et al. Effects of stressful life-events on DNA methylation in panic disorder and major depressive disorder. Clin Epigenetics. 2022;14:55. - PMC - PubMed

[8] Czamara D, Neufang A, Dieterle R, Iurato S, Arloth J, Martins J, et al. Effects of stressful life-events on DNA methylation in panic disorder and major depressive disorder. Clin Epigenetics. 2022;14:55. - PMC - PubMed

[9] Rider CF, Carlsten C. Air pollution and DNA methylation: effects of exposure in humans. Clin Epigenetics. 2019;11:131. - PMC - PubMed

[10] Rider CF, Carlsten C. Air pollution and DNA methylation: effects of exposure in humans. Clin Epigenetics. 2019;11:131. - PMC - PubMed

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Epigenetic timing effects on child developmental outcomes: a longitudinal meta-regression of findings from the Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics Consortium

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Epigenetic timing effects on child developmental outcomes: a longitudinal meta-regression of findings from the Pregnancy And Childhood Epigenetics Consortium

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