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. 2025 Mar 29:27:102425.
doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2025.102425. eCollection 2025 Apr.

Preparation of soybean oil-based emulsions stabilized by shiitake mushroom chitosan modified in both enzymatic and non-enzymatic systems and their application in β-carotene delivery

Jiaofen Lin  1   2 , Jian Zeng  1   2 , Guozong Shi  1   2 , Zesheng Zhuo  1   2 , Yanyun Guan  1   2 , Zhipeng Li  1   2 , Hui Ni  1   2 , Peng Fei  3
Affiliations

Preparation of soybean oil-based emulsions stabilized by shiitake mushroom chitosan modified in both enzymatic and non-enzymatic systems and their application in β-carotene delivery

Jiaofen Lin et al. Food Chem X. .

Abstract

This study investigates the laccase-catalyzed grafting of gallic acid (GA) onto shiitake mushroom chitosan to enhance its emulsifying properties and improve β-carotene delivery. Structural characterization using FTIR, XPS, and 1H NMR revealed that laccase catalysis promoted the formation of amide bonds, disrupted the crystalline structure of chitosan, and enhanced both its hydration and interfacial activity. The modified chitosan emulsions exhibited significantly improved emulsification capacity and stability, with GA-grafted chitosan achieving emulsification activity of 3.34 L/g·cm and stability of 97.6 %. The β-carotene encapsulation efficiency increased to 82.1 %, with enhanced resistance to UV light and H₂O₂-induced degradation. In vitro digestion experiments demonstrated that the modified chitosan emulsion improved β-carotene bioaccessibility (75.8 %) and cellular uptake (55.3 %), significantly improving delivery efficiency. This study provides a novel approach for the development of functional emulsion carriers and lays the foundation for their application in food and drug delivery systems.

Keywords: Emulsifying properties; Laccase; Shiitake mushroom chitosan; Β-Carotene delivery.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
UV spectra, grafting ratio, and1H NMR spectra of native and modified shiitake chitosan. (a): UV spectra; (b): Grafting ratio; (c): 1H NMR spectra; (d): 1H NMR related data.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
FTIR and XPS spectra of native and modified shiitake chitosan. (a): FTIR spectra (4000–400 cm−1); (b): FTIR spectra (1900–900 cm−1); (c): Survey XPS spectra; (d): Nitrogen content obtained from XPS analysis; (e): High-resolution XPS spectra of C1s; (f): High-resolution XPS spectra of N1s.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
XRD spectra, molecular weight, and dynamic viscosity analysis of native and modified shiitake chitosan. (a): XRD spectra; (b): Molecular weight data; (c): Shear rate vs. viscosity; (d): Temperature-dependent viscosity.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of native and modified shiitake chitosan. (a): DPPH radical scavenging rate; (b): β-carotene bleaching inhibition rate; (c): Inhibitory zone diameter against E. coli; (d): Inhibitory zone diameter against S. aureus.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Emulsification properties of native and modified shiitake chitosan-based emulsions. (a)–(d): Micromorphology; (e): Emulsion droplet size; (f): Emulsifying activity; (g): Emulsion stability; (h): Zeta potential.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Storage stability of native and modified shiitake chitosan -based emulsions.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
Loading and protection of β-carotene by native and modified chitosan-based emulsions. (a) Encapsulation Efficiency; (b) Loading Capacity; (c) UV Degradation Experiment; (d) H₂O₂ Oxidation Degradation Experiment.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Bioaccessibility (a) and cellular uptake (b) of β-carotene by native and modified chitosan-based emulsions.
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