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Review
. 2025 Apr 4;26(7):3380.
doi: 10.3390/ijms26073380.

Vitamin E in Plants: Biosynthesis Pathways, Biofortification Strategies, and Regulatory Dynamics

Yanjiao Li  1 , Di Yang  1 , Yuqing Ren  1 , Yanzhong Luo  1 , Hongyan Zheng  1   2 , Yuan Liu  1 , Lei Wang  1   2 , Lan Zhang  1   2
Affiliations
Review

Vitamin E in Plants: Biosynthesis Pathways, Biofortification Strategies, and Regulatory Dynamics

Yanjiao Li et al. Int J Mol Sci. .

Abstract

Vitamin E, mainly encompassing tocopherols and tocotrienols, is an essential antioxidant synthesized in the photosynthetic tissues of plants and photosynthetic bacteria, as well as in certain algae, yet dietary intake often falls short of recommended levels. Although synthetic supplements are available, natural vitamin E demonstrates higher bioavailability, creating a need for biofortification strategies to enrich crops with this nutrient. Recent advances in molecular genetics have elucidated key components of the vitamin E biosynthesis pathway, uncovering complex regulatory mechanisms and expanding opportunities for genetic enhancement. This review integrates current advances in vitamin E biosynthesis, novel gene discovery, diverse biofortification strategies, and insights into transporter-mediated regulation to enhance tocopherol and tocotrienol levels in staple crops. By aligning these advances, this review provides a framework to drive innovative biofortification efforts, positioning vitamin E enrichment as a sustainable solution for improved human and animal health.

Keywords: biofortification; biosynthesis; regulation; vitamin E.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Chemical structures of the α-, β- γ-, and δ- homologs of tocopherols and tocotrienols.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Vitamin E synthesis pathway. Abbreviations: MGGBQ: 2-methyl-6-geranylgeranylbenzoquinone; DMGGBQ: 2,3-methyl-5-geranylgeranylbenzoquinone; δ-T3: δ-tocotrienol; γ-T3: γ-tocotrienol; β-T3: β-tocotrienol; α-T3: α-tocotrienol; MPBQ: 2-methyl-6-phytylbenzoquinone; DMPBQ: 2,3-Methyl-5-phytylquinone; δ-T: δ-tocopherol; γ-T: γ-tocopherol; β-T: β-tocopherol; α-T: α-tocopherol; VTE3(MPBQ MT): 2-methyl-6-phytoquinone methyltransferase; VTE1(TC): tocopherol cyclase; VTE4(γ-TMT): γ-tocopherol methyltransferase; HPT(VTE2): homogentisate phytyltransferase; HGGT: homogentisate geranylgeranyl transferase; HGA: homogentisate; PPP: phytyl pyrophosphate; GGPP: geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate; GGR: GGPP reductase; CHLSYN: chlorophyll synthase; GG Chl: geranylgeranyl chlorophyll; phy Chl: phytyl chlorophyll; VTE5: phytol kinase; VTE6: phytyl monophosphate kinase; VTE7: hydrolase with α/β esterase activity; phytyl-P: phytyl monophosphate; GA3P: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; PA: pyruvate; MEP pathway: methylerythritol phosphate pathway; HPP: 4-hydroxypyruvate; HPPD: 4-hydroxypyruvate dioxygenase; Tyr: L-tyrosine; TAT: tyrosine aminotransferase; TyrA: prephenate dehydrogenase; MAA: 4-maleyl-acetoacetate, 4-Maleylacetoacetic acid; DXS: deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate synthase; DXR: deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase; GGPPS: geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase; CHLase: chlorophyllase; PPH: pheophytin hydrolase; HGO: HGA dioxygenase.
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