Are We Ready for It? A Review of Forensic Applications and Readiness for Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography in Routine Forensic Analysis

Abstract

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) has been explored in forensic research to provide advanced chromatographic separation for forensic evidence, including illicit drugs, fingerprint residue, chemical, biological, nuclear, and radioactive (CBNR) substances, toxicological evidence, odor decomposition, and petroleum analysis for arson investigations and oil spill tracing. In GC×GC, the separation and analysis of analytes is similar to one-dimensional GC, but the primary column is connected to a secondary column via a modulator to provide two independent separation mechanisms, thus increasing the peak capacity of the analysis. The goal of implementing GC×GC in forensic studies is often to increase the separation and detectability of analytes and has most often been applied in nontargeted forensic applications where a wide range of analytes must be analyzed simultaneously. To date, there has been no summary of the current state of forensic research that evaluates both analytical and legal readiness for routine use. For these analytical methods to be adopted into forensic laboratories and be used in evidence analysis, they must meet rigorous analytical standards. In addition, new analytical methods for evidence analysis must adhere to standards laid out by the legal system, including the Frye Standard, Daubert Standard, and Federal Rule of Evidence 702 in the United States and the Mohan Criteria in Canada. Current research on GC×GC use for forensic applications was summarized and reviewed for analytical advances and technology readiness to provide a comprehensive view of GC×GC use for future routine implementation. A technology readiness scale, with levels from 1 to 4, was used to characterize the advancement of research in each individual application area. Seven forensic chemistry applications are discussed related to courtroom criteria and categorized into technology readiness levels based on current literature as of 2024. Future directions for all applications should place a focus on increased intra- and inter-laboratory validation, error rate analysis, and standardization.

FIGURE 1

One‐dimensional GC total ion chromatogram showing co‐elutions of volatiles from decomposition of remains [8].

FIGURE 2

GC×GC‐TOFMS total ion chromatogram demonstrating the resolving power of multidimensional separations [101].

FIGURE 3

Cumulative number of works per year up to 2024 in seven forensic chemistry applications using comprehensive two‐dimensional gas chromatography.

FIGURE 4

One‐dimensional (a) and two‐dimensional (b) chromatograms of kerosene [82].

FIGURE 5

TRL comparison of seven forensic chemistry applications using comprehensive two‐dimensional gas chromatography in 2024. TRL, technology readiness level.