Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2025 Apr 9:16:1547178.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1547178. eCollection 2025.

The relationship between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic

Thi Kim Ngan Vo  1 , Norbert Skokauskas  2 , Keely Cheslack-Postava  3 , Christina W Hoven  3   4
Affiliations

The relationship between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic

Thi Kim Ngan Vo et al. Front Psychiatry. .

Abstract

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated strict safety measures and preparedness, potentially influencing mental well-being worldwide. This study investigated the impact of safety measures and preparedness levels on mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, USA examining how sociodemographic characteristics modified these associations.

Method: A longitudinal study of 1,227 participants from three ongoing cohorts, provided data through telephone interviews across three waves from March 2020 to August 2021. Depression and anxiety were measured using Patient Health Questionnaire 8 (PHQ-8) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7). Logistic regression models were used to investigate associations between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes over time, adjusting for potential confounders and assessing the modification effect of demographic factors.

Results: At Wave 1, 18% of participants reported moderate to severe depression, while 20% had moderate to severe anxiety. Over time, these rates declined significantly, with depression dropping to 9% and anxiety to 10% by Wave 3. Safety measures practiced at Wave 1 showed a protective effect on depression at Wave 3 (OR=0.45, 95% CI: 0.22, 0.91). Higher preparedness levels were significantly associated with reduced odds of anxiety (aOR=0.72, 95% CI: 0.55, 0.93) in the concurrent wave. Age specific analysis revealed that individuals aged 26-35 experienced stronger protective effects from higher preparedness levels (OR=0.43, 95% CI: 0.2, 0.92) compared to younger age groups.

Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of safety measures and preparedness in mitigating mental health challenges during crises. Addressing age specific factors and preparedness levels can guide the public health strategies to better support diverse populations.

Keywords: COVID-19; New York City; anxiety; depression; pandemic responses; preparedness; safety measures; time trends.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Odds ratios and confidence intervals for association of safety measures with depression across three waves.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Age-specific association of preparedness with depression and anxiety.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

References

    1. Yu L, Lecompte M, Zhang W, Wang P, Yang L. Sociodemographic and COVID-related predictors for mental health condition of mainland chinese in Canada amidst the pandemic. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2021) 19:171. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19010171 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Zhang X, Qiao Y, Wang M, Liang X, Zhang M, Li C, et al. . The influence of genetic and acquired factors on the vulnerability to develop depression: a review. Biosci Rep. (2023) 43:BSR20222644. doi: 10.1042/BSR20222644 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Akinkuowo A, Cheslack-Postava K, Skokauskas N, Hoven CW. Loneliness, emotional support and the mental health of young adults and their parents in New York, US during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cohort study. BMC Psychiatry. (2024) 24:849. doi: 10.1186/s12888-024-06305-x - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Rafieian M, Skokauskas N, Cheslack-Postava K, Hoven CW. The association between intolerance of uncertainty and depressive symptoms during COVID-19 in New York, USA. J Affect Disord. (2024) 356:628–38. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.04.037 - DOI - PubMed
    1. Landi G, Pakenham KI, Crocetti E, Tossani E, Grandi S. The trajectories of anxiety and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic and the protective role of psychological flexibility: a four-wave longitudinal study. J Affect Disord. (2022) 307:69–78. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.067 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

LinkOut - more resources