Bacterial Cellulose for Scalable and Sustainable Bio-Gels in the Circular Economy

Abstract

Microbial-derived materials are emerging for applications in biomedicine, sensors, food, cosmetics, construction, and fashion. They offer considerable structural properties and process reproducibility compared to other bio-based materials. However, challenges related to efficient and sustainable large-scale production of microbial-derived materials must be addressed to exploit their potential fully. This review analyzes the synergistic contribution of circular, sustainable, and biotechnological approaches to enhance bacterial cellulose (BC) production and fine-tune its physico-chemical properties. BC was chosen as an ideal example due to its mechanical strength and chemical stability, making it promising for industrial applications. The review discusses upcycling strategies that utilize waste for microbial fermentation, simultaneously boosting BC production. Additionally, biotechnology techniques are identified as key to enhance BC yield and tailor its physico-chemical properties. Among the different areas where cellulose-based materials are employed, BC shows promise for mitigating the environmental impact of the garment industry. The review emphasizes that integrating circular and biotechnological approaches could significantly improve large-scale production and enhance the tunability of BC properties. Additionally, these approaches may simultaneously provide environmental benefits, depending on their future progresses. Future advancements should prioritize circular fermentation and biotechnological techniques to expand the potential of BC for sustainable industrial applications.

Keywords: cellulose; fermentation; food waste; green manufacturing; sustainable fashion.

Figure 2

Plant-derived cellulose is linked to lignin and hemicellulose, which require strong chemical processes [61]. Bacterial cellulose (BC), produced in a purer form, requires a straightforward purification process. Reprinted with permission from [62] under the CC-BY 4.0 publishing license terms.

Figure 1

The study’s rationale is based on the problem of food and plastic waste. The biotechnology–circularity–scalability nexus must be considered to allow the industrial scalability of microbial-derived polymers.

Figure 3

(a) Bibliometric analysis of different topics related to BC. (b) Patent about BC publications analysis from 2010 to 2024. The Scopus (Elsevier, NL) database was selected as the source of peer-reviewed literature. The search strategy involved the queries: “bacterial AND cellulose AND biotechnology”, “bacterial AND cellulose AND waste”, “bacterial AND cellulose AND circular”, “bacterial AND cellulose AND industry”.

Figure 4

Features of static and dynamic cultivation methods of bacterial cellulose.

Figure 5

(a) A symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast during kombucha tea fermentation (b) BC at the end of the fermentation process. Original images of BC produced by the authors through kombucha tea fermentation.

Figure 6

Schematic process of BC production through kombucha tea fermentation. Sugared tea, fermented tea (kombucha tea), and SCOBY (formerly BC) are mixed and incubated for at least 7 days under controlled temperature. The solid and dotted arrows underline the circularity of BC production through kombucha tea fermentation, where a portion of the bio-synthesized SCOBY is used as inoculum in subsequent fermentations. Additionally, the remaining SCOBY can be upcycled into bio-based materials. Original images of BC were produced by the authors through kombucha tea fermentation.