Projectile weapon injuries in the Riparo Tagliente burial (Veneto, Italy) provide early evidence of Late Upper Paleolithic intergroup conflict

Abstract

Evidence of interpersonal violence in the Paleolithic is rare but can shed light on the presence of ancient conflict in prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies. Projectile injuries suggest confrontations between groups and have primarily been identified through lithic elements embedded in bones. Recently, the study of projectile impact marks (PIMs) has allowed for the recognition of projectile injuries in the absence of embedded elements. We report here the discovery and study of one of the earliest evidence of PIMs in human paleobiological record, found in the burial from Riparo Tagliente (individual Tagliente 1, Veneto, Italy), directly dated to ca. 17,000-15,500 cal BP. Analyses through SEM and 3D microscopy demonstrate that the femur and the tibia show clear evidence of PIMs impacting the bone from different directions. This could be due to the presence of multiple attackers, or to the victim turning between impacts. No trace of healing is present; one PIM is close to the femoral artery, which can cause a rapid death if pierced. Evidence at Riparo Tagliente could be attributed to conflict between different groups of hunter-gatherers expanding in newly opened Alpine territories during climatic amelioration after the Last Glacial Maximum.

Keywords: Bone modifications; Northeastern Italy; Prehistoric violence; Projectile impact marks; Taphonomy; Upper Paleolithic burial.

Fig.1

(A) The geographic position of the site of Riparo Tagliente in northeastern Italy (map from  https://srvcarto.regione.liguria.it/; copyright 2025 Maxar technologies). (B): Zenithal picture of the burial at the time of discovery. (C): The Riparo Tagliente rock shelter; the arrow indicates the position of the burial of the individual Tagliente 1.

Fig. 2

(A) surface 3D model (left) and a macro picture (right) showing the location and the appearance of the incisions discovered in the medial aspect of midshaft left femur. The three lesions that were analyzed via microscopic 3D and SEM analysis are labeled (A, B, and C). Scale is 10 mm.

Fig. 3

A surface 3D model (right) and a macro picture (left) showing the location and the appearance of the incisions discovered in the mid-proximal posterior aspect of the left tibia. The two lesions that were analyzed via microscopic 3D and SEM analysis are labeled (A and B). Scale is 10 mm.

Fig. 4

SEM images of the three parallel main marks on the femur. The steep sides and deep sulcus of the grooves are evident on the right side of FA and FB. In the terminal part of the marks, these grooves abruptly narrow showing the microstriations produced by the sliding edge of a flint tool.

Fig. 5

(a): median cross section of mark TA; (b): Depth of Cut (DC) of marks from Tagliente in comparison with experimental PIMs and cutmarks; (c): RTF index of marks from Tagliente in comparison with experimental PIMs and cutmarks; (d): DC of marks from Tagliente in comparison with archaeological butchering marks on human bodies.

Fig. 6

Principal Component Analysis performed on the dataset of measurement of median cross-sections. Grey circles: cutmarks (unretouched flakes); red crosses: cutmarks (retouched flakes); green diamonds: experimental PIMs on coypus; green crosses: experimental PIMs (ungulates); teal oval: PIM from Cornafessa rock shelter; blue stars: Tagliente 1 femur; filled purple dots: Tagliente 1 tibia.

Fig. 7

Zenithal images of mark FB in real (a) and false (b) color. Arrows indicate a step-like feature representing a partial abrupt interruption of the main groove, followed by an abrupt change in depth.

Fig. 8

Reconstruction of the probable ballistic trajectory of the projectiles that left the linear marks in Riparo Tagliente 1; In red, the course of the arteries of the lower limb is reconstructed. (A): Left femur, medial view; (B): Left femur, frontal view, showing the path of the femoral arteries; (C): Left tibia, medial view; (D): Left tibia, posterior view, showing the path of the tibial and fibular arteries. (Drawing of the path of arteries modified from: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2129ab_Lower_Limb_Arteries_Anterior_Posterior.jpg#file CC-BY-3.0; silhouettes from Wikimedia Commons CC-Zero).