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. 2025 Apr 30;18(1):162.
doi: 10.1186/s13071-025-06774-3.

Spatial inference of Culex pipiens abundance and biting activity distribution in the Netherlands using citizen science

Ayat Abourashed  1   2 , Catuxa Cerecedo-Iglesias  3 , Martha Dellar  4 , John R B Palmer  5 , Frederic Bartumeus  6   7   8
Affiliations

Spatial inference of Culex pipiens abundance and biting activity distribution in the Netherlands using citizen science

Ayat Abourashed et al. Parasit Vectors. .

Abstract

Background: The expanding geographical spread of mosquito-borne diseases (MBDs) has intensified the need for effective mosquito surveillance. Additional surveillance, particularly of species such as Culex pipiens, is essential as this species is a key vector of West Nile and Usutu viruses. Citizen science offers an innovative approach to monitoring Cx. pipiens populations.

Methods: Our study utilized data from the Mosquito Alert mobile app to model the spatial distribution and abundance of Cx. pipiens and mosquito bites during the summer of 2021 in the Netherlands. Using generalized linear mixed models, climatic and non-climatic factors were analyzed to create two distribution models of adult Cx. pipiens and mosquito bites as outcomes.

Results: Population density, income, and agricultural areas (P ≤ 0.007) were identified as key determinants for both models. Blackbird population density, precipitation, and the interaction between artificial surfaces and temperature were also covariates for the Culex model, whereas sand and tree coverage were determinants for the bite model. The study controlled for biases in sampling effort to ensure robust predictions, revealing higher Cx. pipiens abundance in the central eastern areas of the country and widespread mosquito biting activity across the Netherlands.

Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of sociodemographic and environmental factors in mosquito distribution and biting dynamics, with citizen science emerging as a valuable tool for enhancing traditional surveillance. Future research integrating longer temporal datasets and human behavioral factors will further improve predictive accuracy and support more effective MBD prevention efforts.

Keywords: Culex pipiens; Citizen science; Host–vector interaction; Mobile application; Mosquito surveillance; Species distribution model.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: This dataset involves human participation through a mobile phone app from which citizen scientists send text and image data. Participants must accept the Mosquito Alert User Agreement [106] in order to use the app, and participation is anonymous. Consent for publication: Consent to publish data is stipulated within the Mosquito Alert User Agreement [106], where a consent form is signed by the participant during registration. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Time series of daily Mosquito Alert Culex pipiens (blue line) and bite (red line) reports in the Netherlands from July 22, 2021, to August 22, 2021
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Daily totals of Mosquito Alert reporting across the Netherlands from July 22, 2021, to August 22, 2021, for A validated adult Culex pipiens reports and B bite reports
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Mean sampling effort of Mosquito Alert citizen scientists by cell in the study period. SE, sampling effort
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Spatial prediction maps based on Mosquito Alert citizen science data controlling for sampling bias: A Cx. pipiens abundance and B bite abundance across the Netherlands
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Scatter plot of the predicted abundance of Cx. pipiens and bites
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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