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. 2025 Apr 28;8(1):33.
doi: 10.5334/joc.442. eCollection 2025.

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Experiences Enhance Metacognitive Sensitivity of Confidence Evaluation of Semantic Memory

Ali Pournaghdali  1 , Bennett L Schwartz  2 , Fabian A Soto  2
Affiliations

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Experiences Enhance Metacognitive Sensitivity of Confidence Evaluation of Semantic Memory

Ali Pournaghdali et al. J Cogn. .

Abstract

In this study, we used a multidimensional extension of signal detection theory called general recognition theory (GRT) to evaluate the influence of tip-of-the-tongue states (TOT) and feeling-of-knowing (FOK) experiences on the metacognitive sensitivity of recognition confidence judgments. In two experiments, we asked participants to recall names of famous individuals (Experiment 1) or to recall correct answers to a series of general-knowledge questions (Experiment 2). If recall failed for any trial, participants provided metacognitive judgments of TOT and FOK, memory recognition responses, and metacognitive judgments of confidence on those recognition responses. To evaluate the influence of TOT and FOK on the metacognitive sensitivity of confidence judgments, we fit two different GRT models and constructed two sensitivity vs. metacognition curves, each representing changes in metacognitive sensitivity of confidence, as a function of the strength of TOT or FOK. The results showed that experiencing a TOT or a high FOK is associated with an increase in metacognitive sensitivity of confidence judgments. These results are the first report of influence of TOT and FOK on metacognitive sensitivity of confidence.

Keywords: Mathematical Modeling; Memory; Metacognition.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Figures

We first fitted the data to a GRT model, with TOT or FOK as one dimension of interest and post-decision confidence evaluation of memory recognition as the second dimension of interest (a). Each ellipse in this figure represents a stimulus category (correct and incorrect name conditions as well as catch trials). Using the estimated parameters of the fitted models, we constructed a different type-2 SvM curve, which represents the influence of TOT or FOK on confidence sensitivity (b)
Figure 1
We first fitted the data to a GRT model, with TOT or FOK as one dimension of interest and post-decision confidence evaluation of memory recognition as the second dimension of interest (a). Each ellipse in this figure represents a stimulus category (correct and incorrect name conditions as well as catch trials). Using the estimated parameters of the fitted models, we constructed a different type-2 SvM curve, which represents the influence of TOT or FOK on confidence sensitivity (b).
Experiment 1 results. The figures in the left column depict the estimated GRT models for each metacognitive judgment (TOT and FOK), and the figures in the right column depict estimated type-2 SvM curves. In all of the type-2 SvM curve graphs, the red line is the type-2 SvM curve extracted from the GRT model, and the lighter red bands represent the 99 percent confidence interval. The vertical blue line is the objective criterion based on the optimal observer in the GRT model, and the vertical green lines are the individual criterion of participants
Figure 2
Experiment 1 results. The figures in the left column depict the estimated GRT models for each metacognitive judgment (TOT and FOK), and the figures in the right column depict estimated type-2 SvM curves. In all of the type-2 SvM curve graphs, the red line is the type-2 SvM curve extracted from the GRT model, and the lighter red bands represent the 99 percent confidence interval. The vertical blue line is the objective criterion based on the optimal observer in the GRT model, and the vertical green lines are the individual criterion of participants.
Experiment 2 results. The figures in the left column depict the estimated GRT models for each metacognitive judgment (TOT and FOK), and the figures in the right column depict estimated type-2 SvM curves. In all of the type-2 SvM curve graphs, the red line is the type-2 SvM curve extracted from the GRT model, and the lighter red bands represent the 99 percent confidence interval. The vertical blue line is the objective criterion based on the optimal observer in the GRT model, and the vertical green lines are the individual criterion of participants
Figure 3
Experiment 2 results. The figures in the left column depict the estimated GRT models for each metacognitive judgment (TOT and FOK), and the figures in the right column depict estimated type-2 SvM curves. In all of the type-2 SvM curve graphs, the red line is the type-2 SvM curve extracted from the GRT model, and the lighter red bands represent the 99 percent confidence interval. The vertical blue line is the objective criterion based on the optimal observer in the GRT model, and the vertical green lines are the individual criterion of participants.
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