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Review
. 2025 May 6;9(1):130.
doi: 10.1038/s41698-025-00901-0.

Immunotherapy in lung cancer brain metastases

Eunice Paisana  1 , Rita Cascão  1 , Magda Alvoeiro  2 , Francisco Félix  2 , Guilherme Martins  3 , Carla Guerreiro  3 , Rafael Roque  4 , Rafael Cruz  1   5   6 , Teresa R Pacheco  1   7   8 , Ana Cristina Amado  9 , Filipa Ferro  10 , Andrea Lopes Machado  10 , Ana Sofia Vilariça  10 , Direndra Hasmucrai  10 , Paula Alves  10 , Claudia C Faria  11   12   13
Affiliations
Review

Immunotherapy in lung cancer brain metastases

Eunice Paisana et al. NPJ Precis Oncol. .

Abstract

Brain metastases (BM) occur frequently in lung cancer, particularly in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients and remain a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Standard therapies have limited efficacy due to poor crossing of the blood-brain barrier and the distinct features between BM and the primary tumor. This review explores the immune landscape of brain metastatic disease, emerging immunotherapeutic strategies, and promising biomarkers in NSCLC patients.

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Conflict of interest statement

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1. Immune targeting of NSCLC BM tumor microenvironment.
Summary of current immunotherapeutic strategies described, representing both approved treatments and novel immune targets. ADC antibody-drug conjugate, APC antigen-presenting cell, CAR chimeric antigen receptor, CTLA-4 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4, IDO1 Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1, PD-1 programmed cell death protein 1, PD-L1 programmed death-ligand 1, VEGF Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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