Immune-regulating extracellular vesicles: a new frontier in autoimmune disease therapy

Abstract

Immune regulation is recognized as a cornerstone therapeutic strategy for the treatment of various autoimmune diseases. These disorders, driven by dysregulated immune responses, contribute significantly to morbidity and mortality. Although conventional immunosuppressive therapies provide symptomatic relief, their prolonged use is often associated with severe adverse effects, underscoring the need for safer and more effective treatment approaches. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), derived from immunoregulatory cells such as regulatory T cells, dendritic cells, mesenchymal stem cells, and neutrophils, have emerged as promising candidates for targeted immunomodulation. These nanoscale vesicles inherit the immunosuppressive properties of their parental cells, thereby facilitating immune homeostasis while mitigating the risks associated with other cell-based therapies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the application of immunoregulatory cell-derived EVs for autoimmune disease treatment, with a particular focus on their mechanisms of action within the immune microenvironment. Finally, we discuss the challenges and potential future directions in the development of EV-based therapies for autoimmune diseases.

Keywords: autoimmune disease; cell-based therapy; extracellular vesicles; immune regulation.

Figure 1. Extracellular vesicle (EVs) in autoimmune diseases.

(A) Classification of EVs into various types on the basis of biogenesis, including exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. (B) EVs in immune modulation of autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. (C) Various types of EVs, such as Treg-derived EVs, dendritic cell-derived EVs, mesenchymal stem cell-derived EVs, and neutrophil cell-derived EVs showing their major components.