Nano-pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of green-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles: a pathway to safer therapeutic applications

Abstract

The green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) has garnered significant attention due to their eco-friendly and biocompatible nature, making them ideal for biomedical applications.However, the limited understanding of their pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) properties hinders their clinical translation.This review critically examines the ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) of green-synthesised ZnO NPs, emphasising how synthesis methods influence their interaction with biological systems.We highlight key knowledge gaps, including biodistribution, cellular uptake, and long-term toxicity, and discuss strategies to optimise their therapeutic potential in targeted drug delivery and sustained release systems.A deeper understanding of PK/PD profiles is essential to enhance the safety and efficacy of ZnO NPs for next-generation therapeutics.Future research should focus on comprehensive in vivo studies and standardised testing protocols to bridge existing gaps.This review aims to guide the rational design of safer and more effective ZnO NPs for clinical applications.

Keywords: Green synthesis; ZnO nanoparticles; biomedical applications; pharmacodynamics; pharmacokinetics.