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Review
. 2025 May 18:19:11786302251337563.
doi: 10.1177/11786302251337563. eCollection 2025.

Microbial Water Quality at the Point of Use: The Role of Socio-Economic Factors and Water Handling Practices in Kitwe District, Zambia

Sarah Ng'andwe  1   2 , George M Ogendi  1 , Elizabeth Muoria  1 , Justine Ngoma  3
Affiliations
Review

Microbial Water Quality at the Point of Use: The Role of Socio-Economic Factors and Water Handling Practices in Kitwe District, Zambia

Sarah Ng'andwe et al. Environ Health Insights. .

Abstract

Background: The scarcity of safe drinking water affects individuals living in low income areas, increasing their vulnerability to waterborne diseases. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between socio-economic factors, water handling practices and microbial water quality in Kitwe District, Zambia.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 215 households using a semi-structured questionnaire along with microbiological analysis of water samples during the dry and wet season. A total of 44 water samples (per season) from the point of use and 16 source samples were analyzed for pH, temperature, residual chlorine, total coliforms, and Escherichia coli. Multivariable logistic regression analyzed associations between socio-economic factors, water handling practices, and water quality.

Results: The prevalence of Escherichia coli contamination was 61.3% during the dry season and 77.3% during the wet season. Key factors associated with household water quality included, household monthly income, education level, family size, season, storage container design, water withdrawal method, covering storage containers, water treatment practices, and hand washing with soap. Notably, households that used narrow-mouthed containers (AOR = 0.090, 0.014-0.580), covered their storage containers (AOR = 0.113, 0.014-0.889), and practiced water treatment (AOR = 0.120, 0.022-0.656) showed significantly reduced risks of E. coli contamination.

Conclusion and recommendations: The findings highlight the importance of socio-economic factors and proper water handling practices in improving household water quality. To enhance water safety and reduce water-related diseases, targeted interventions should focus on educating communities about the effective handling of water. Furthermore, addressing socio-economic factors and improving access to safe water are essential for mitigating contamination risks in low-income areas.

Keywords: E. coli; household water quality; microbiological water quality; water handling practices.

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Conflict of interest statement

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Map showing the African continent (a), the country Zambia (b), the Copperbelt province, and Kitwe city (c).
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Point of use water samples contaminated with E. coli.
Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Relationship between physicochemical parameters and E. coli (upper panel (a), (b), (c)) and total coliforms (lower panel (d), (e), (f)) at the point of use during the dry and wet seasons.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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