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. 2025 Jun 9;26(6):3514-3524.
doi: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5c00125. Epub 2025 May 20.

Glycopolymer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for the Detection of Western Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) Venom

Mahdi Hezwani  1 , Derecash Anokye  1 , Douglas E Soutar  1 , Melissa Ligorio  1 , Neil Prabhakar  1 , Jack C Oram  1 , Alexander J Cantor  1 , Garrett D Jackson  1 , Roberto Terracciano  1 , Marc Walker  2 , Alexander N Baker  1
Affiliations

Glycopolymer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for the Detection of Western Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) Venom

Mahdi Hezwani et al. Biomacromolecules. .

Abstract

Every 5 minutes, 50 people are bitten by a snake worldwide; four will be permanently disabled and one will die. Most approaches to treating and diagnosing snake envenomation, a World Health Organization (WHO)-neglected tropical disease, rely on antibody-based solutions derived from animals or cell culture. Here, we present the first proof of concept for a glycopolymer-based ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) assay to detect snake venom, specifically Western Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox) venom. This was achieved by synthesizing a library of glycan-terminated poly(hydroxyethyl acrylamide) functionalized gold nanoparticles. The library was analyzed using UV-vis spectroscopy and biolayer interferometry, with galactose-terminating systems found to demonstrate specificity for C. atrox venom, versus model lectins and Naja naja venom in UV-vis assays. This corroborates glycan array data in the literature and highlights our glycopolymer systems' potential as a diagnostic tool for snakebite, with the best particle system displaying a limit of detection of ∼20 μg·mL-1.

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Figures

1
1
Synthesis of gold nanoparticle library with glycan-terminated polymer tethers and analysis. (A) Polymerization of N-hydroxyethyl acrylamide synthesis by RAFT, followed by displacement of the PFP ester with aminoglycans, (B) gold nanoparticle functionalization with glycopolymer, (C) representative UV–vis spectra of (40 nm) nanoparticle systems, (D) C 1s X-ray photoelectron spectrum of Gal-2-pHEA42@AuNP40, and (E) written representation of all synthesized nanoparticles.
2
2
UV–vis absorbance spectra of three particle systems (Gal-2-PHEA42@AuNP40 versus SBA (A), WGA (B), C. atrox venom (C) and N. naja venom (D); Lac-1-PHEA42@AuNP16 versus SBA (F), WGA (G), and C. atrox venom (H) and N. naja venom (I); and Glc-2-PHEA42@AuNP16 versus SBA (K), WGA (L) and C. atrox venom (M)) versus varying concentrations of analyte. Normalized absorbance at 700 nm for the three particle systems (Gal-2-PHEA42@AuNP40 (E), Lac-1-PHEA42@AuNP16 (J), and Glc-2-PHEA42@AuNP16 (N)) versus SBA, WGA, C. atrox venom, and N. naja venom at varying concentrations.
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3
Normalized absorbance at 700 nm for round 1 particles versus SBA, WGA, C. atrox venom, and N. naja venom at varying concentrations. (A) GalNAc-1-PHEA42@AuNP16, (B) GalNAc-1-PHEA42@AuNP40, (C) Gal-1-PHEA42@AuNP16, (D) Gal-1-PHEA42@AuNP40, (E) Gal-2-PHEA42@AuNP16, (F) Gal-2-PHEA42@AuNP40, (G) Glc-2-PHEA42@AuNP16, (H) Glc-2-PHEA42@AuNP40, (I) Man-2-PHEA42@AuNP16, (J) Man-2-PHEA42@AuNP40, and (K) Lac-1-PHEA42@AuNP16.
4
4
Normalized absorbance at 700 nm for round 2 and 3 particles versus SBA, WGA and C. atrox venom at varying concentrations. (A) Gal-2-PHEA15@AuNP16, (B) Gal-2-PHEA25@AuNP30, (C) Gal-2-PHEA42@AuNP30, (D) Lac-1-PHEA25@AuNP16, (E) Lac-1-PHEA25@AuNP30, and (K) Lac-1-PHEA52@AuNP40.
5
5
BLI analysis of Gal-2-pHEA42@AuNP40 aminopropylsilane sensors versus varying concentrations of analyte: (A) C. atrox venom and (B) N. naja venom.
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