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. 2025 May 20;15(21):16742-16765.
doi: 10.1039/d5ra01469g. eCollection 2025 May 15.

Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using E. cardamomum and zinc nitrate precursor: a dual-functional material for water purification and antibacterial applications

Harpreet Kaur  1 , Abhishek Sharma  2 , Krishna Anand  2 , Ankush Panday  2 , Shavan Tagotra  2 , Sachin Kakran  2 , Anuj Kumar Singh  2 , Mir Waqas Alam  3 , Sanjeev Kumar  1 , Gassoumi Bouzid  4 , Jasvir Dalal  5 , Gurjinder Singh  6
Affiliations

Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using E. cardamomum and zinc nitrate precursor: a dual-functional material for water purification and antibacterial applications

Harpreet Kaur et al. RSC Adv. .

Abstract

This study presents an eco-friendly, bio-engineered approach for synthesizing zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using Elettaria cardamomum pod (EC-pod) extract, offering a sustainable alternative for environmental remediation and antimicrobial applications. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirms the wurtzite crystalline phase, with an average particle size of 20.87 nm. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy reveals a characteristic absorption peak at 372 nm, corresponding to an energy band gap of 3.33 eV. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy highlights the role of phytochemicals as capping and stabilizing agents. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) confirm multi-architectural morphologies, including hexagonal, spherical, rod-like, and pentagonal structures, with energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy verifying elemental purity. The photocatalytic efficiency of EC-pod:ZnO in degrading malachite green (MG) dye under UV irradiation reaches 99.8% removal within 160 minutes, with a high quantum yield of 2.73 × 10-3 molecules per photon and a space-time yield of 1.37 × 10-5 molecules per photon per mg. Additionally, EC-pod:ZnO exhibits significant antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria, showcasing its dual functionality as a potential photocatalyst and antimicrobial agent. This nature-inspired ZnO nanomaterial offers an economical, scalable, and sustainable solution for environmental and biomedical applications, highlighting its potential in wastewater treatment and microbial control.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1. (a) X-ray diffraction pattern of EC-pod:ZnO (at 80 °C), (b) Standard ZnO (JCPDS No. 00-001-1136), and (c) X-ray diffraction pattern of EC-pod:ZnO (at 400 °C).
Fig. 2
Fig. 2. (a) UV-vis spectrum and (b) Tauc plot of EC-pod:ZnO.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3. FTIR spectra: (a) zinc hexanitrate dehydrate, (b) EC extract, (c) EC-pod:ZnO, and (d) ZnO (without extract).
Fig. 4
Fig. 4. FESEM micrographs (a) & (b), EDX spectrum (inset, b), and TGA of EC-pod:ZnO (c).
Fig. 5
Fig. 5. (a and b) TEM images, (c) HRTEM image, (d) SAED pattern, and (e) zeta potential of EC-pod:ZnO.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6. Stability of MG dye; (a) without EC-pod:ZnO, and (b and c) with different conc. of EC-pod:ZnO (10 mg and 20 mg) and (d) degradation profile of MG dye using E. cardamomum mediated ZnO.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7. (a–c) Kinetic plots of the degradation of MG dye using EC-pod:ZnO and ZnO (without extract), (d) Reusability, (e) TOC removal efficiency of MG dye, and (f) impact of scavengers on MG dye removal.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8. Photodegradation of MG dye using EC-pod:ZnO.
Fig. 9
Fig. 9. Antibacterial activity against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa using: (a and b) EC-pod:ZnO NPs and salt and (c and d) Ampicillin, extract and ZnO synthesized without extract.
Fig. 10
Fig. 10. Schematic of antibacterial action mechanism of EC-pod:ZnO NPs.
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