Nanocarriers of natural and synthetic ixodicides, new alternatives against Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae): A review

Abstract

In many countries, economic activities such as agriculture and livestock farming are fundamental pillars of the economy. However, the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus poses a serious threat to livestock production systems, leading to significant economic losses. The most employed control method is the use of chemical ixodicides; nonetheless, their application is associated with several drawbacks, including environmental pollution, risks to human and animal health, and the development of resistant tick populations. These issues highlight the urgent need for sustainable, low-impact alternatives that can effectively mitigate resistance. Natural products have been extensively studied for their ixodicidal properties, as they interfere with various biological processes in ticks. Despite their potential, the practical application of these compounds faces several limitations. In this context, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach for the control of R. microplus, particularly using nanocarriers to deliver both natural compounds and synthetic ixodicidal agents. The use of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), lipid-based NPs, and nanoemulsions as controlled-release systems offer several advantages. These include maintaining ixodicidal efficacy at lower concentrations, enhancing the stability and bioavailability of active compounds, and improving their penetration across biological barriers. As a result, nanocarrier-based delivery systems can increase treatment effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This review explores the current findings on the use of nanocarriers for delivering natural and synthetic ixodicidals against R. microplus, emphasizing their interactions, mechanisms of action, and effectiveness. Furthermore, it discusses the main challenges and future perspectives in this innovative and rapidly evolving field.

Keywords: Nanoparticles; Nanotechnology; Natural products; Rhipicephalus microplus; Ticks.