Advancements in Wearable and Implantable BioMEMS Devices: Transforming Healthcare Through Technology

Abstract

Wearable and implantable BioMEMSs (biomedical microelectromechanical systems) have transformed modern healthcare by enabling continuous, personalized, and minimally invasive monitoring, diagnostics, and therapy. Wearable BioMEMSs have advanced rapidly, encompassing a diverse range of biosensors, bioelectronic systems, drug delivery platforms, and motion tracking technologies. These devices enable non-invasive, real-time monitoring of biochemical, electrophysiological, and biomechanical signals, offering personalized and proactive healthcare solutions. In parallel, implantable BioMEMS have significantly enhanced long-term diagnostics, targeted drug delivery, and neurostimulation. From continuous glucose and intraocular pressure monitoring to programmable drug delivery and bioelectric implants for neuromodulation, these devices are improving precision treatment by continuous monitoring and localized therapy. This review explores the materials and technologies driving advancements in wearable and implantable BioMEMSs, focusing on their impact on chronic disease management, cardiology, respiratory care, and glaucoma treatment. We also highlight their integration with artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT), paving the way for smarter, data-driven healthcare solutions. Despite their potential, BioMEMSs face challenges such as regulatory complexities, global standardization, and societal determinants. Looking ahead, we explore emerging directions like multifunctional systems, biodegradable power sources, and next-generation point-of-care diagnostics. Collectively, these advancements position BioMEMS as pivotal enablers of future patient-centric healthcare systems.

Keywords: bioMEMS; biocompatible materials; cardiac monitoring; chronic disease management; drug delivery; healthcare monitoring; implantable devices; point of care; societal determinants; wearable medical devices.

Figure 4

(a) Schematic of the multifunctional sensor with flexible strain-sensing and transdermal drug delivery. GnPs, graphene nanoplatelets; AgNWs, silver nanowires; PLGA, polylactic-co-glycolic acid; PDMS. Copyright 2019 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [408]. (b) Schematic of nanoparticle-loaded microneedle patch with anti-PD-1 (programmed death-1 pathway) delivery. The glucose oxidase/catalase (GOx/CAT) enzyme system encapsulated inside nanoparticles converted blood glucose to gluconic acid, dissociating nanoparticles and releasing aPD1. Copyright 2022 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [409].

Figure 5

(a) An illustration of the chemical structures of various polymers. (b) Illustration of various manufacturing processes. (c) Illustration of various targets of drug delivery. (d) An illustration of reservoir- and monolithic-type implants. Copyright 2018 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [451].

Figure 1

(a) Placement and types of wearable devices on the human body, illustrates various locations and their corresponding functionalities. Types of wearable BioMEMSs based on their (b) functional applications in healthcare and wellness, (c) physiological parameters, (d) design, and (e) source and connectivity.

Figure 2

(a) Dual-purpose electrochemical wearable sensor for the detection of glucose and uric acid, (i) optical representation of the dual-purpose wearable electrochemical sensor. (ii) Optical representation of the “touch-and-sense” concept. (iii) Diagram of the wearable sensor printed on a rubber glove. (iv) Diagram of the four-electrode sensor. (v,vi) Diagrams illustrating the production of sensor–UA and sensor–glucose, together with their respective sensing mechanisms for uric acid (UA) and glucose. Copyright 2023 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [322]. (b) (i) Proposed breath sensor schematic. The fiber-tip microcantilever deflects and recovers during inhale and exhale. (ii) TPP technology-based fs laser microfabrication of a fiber-tip microcantilever. (iii,iv) SEM pictures of the device. Copyright 2022 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [323]. (c) The detection mechanism of the fabricated enzyme method-based microfluidic chip. Copyright 2021 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [324].

Figure 3

(a) Wearable smart T-shirt ECG acquisition system used in this investigation. Wearable smart T-shirts have three silver-coated dry electrodes, a smart textile, a recorder base, and an ECG collector. Display devices like smartphones, PCs, laptops, and tablets communicate ECG signals over Bluetooth. Copyright 2022 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [382]. (b) A prototype of a wearable ECG device developed at Satbayev University: (i) external view; (ii) board. Copyright 2024 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [383]. (c) Recording setup for this study. (Left) Naox Technologies in-ear device earpieces with electrodes in ELE, ERE, ELI, and ERI, with two contact points per ear canal. (Right) Left side of dual configuration, with scalp and in-ear devices. (i,ii) Comparisons used standard scalp T7 electrode (red circle). Copyright 2024 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [384]. (d) (i) Polyurethane foam wearable EMG measurement device construction. (ii) Polyurethane foam plateau. (iii) Using polyurethane foam to stabilize contact pressure. The figure shows the urethane foam and garments’ force direction with red arrows. Copyright 2024 MDPI. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [385].