An Insight into Immunological Therapeutic Approach against Cancer: Potential Anti-cancer Vaccines

Abstract

The development of a cancer vaccine comes with its complications and designing and developing a vaccine against foreign invaders such as bacterial and viral particles is not as complex and multi-faceted as the preparation of immunotherapy for host-infected cells which resemble our own body cells. The entire research and development framework of designing a vaccine for cancerous cells lies entirely on the remarkable aspect of notifying specific interactions and acclimatising the immune system. This review aims to compile the several fronts research-based methodology applies to in terms of developing a therapeutic, preventive or personalised vaccine for cancer. The approach lays focus on the identification and selection of targets for vaccine development which have come to light as immune biomarkers. Furthemore, significant aspects of personalised and precision vaccines and the fine line that runs between these approaches have also been discussed.

Keywords: Cancer; cancerous cells; immunotherapy; precision therapy; therapeutics; vaccine.

Fig. (1)

Dendritic cells-based approaches for the development of cancer vaccines. Steps involved in dendritic cells-based approaches: Isolation of CD14+ monocytes/ CD34+ hematopoietic cells/ natural dendritic cells from an oncological patient via apheresis; Addition of dendritic cell differentiation factors (CD14+ monocytes/ CD34+ hematopoietic cells) to obtain immature dendritic cells; Addition of cytokine cocktail for dendritic cell maturation or electroporation with CD40L, CD70, _CATLR4 mRNA; Introduction of the prepared formulation into the potential recipient via intratumoural/ intravenous/ intranodal/ intradermal pathway; On introduction, the mature dendritic cells migrate to the lymph nodes, where antigen presentation to the naïve CD8+ T-cells, CD4+ T-cells and B-cells takes place and then the respective activated cells migrate to the tumour.

Fig. (2)

Mode of action of Aluminium adjuvants in cancer treatment. Step (1): The prepared formulation is introduced into the patient muscle. Aluminium activates monocytes and dendritic cells and impacts antigen uptake. Step (2): Monocytes and dendritic cells, once activated, present the antigen to CD4+ T-cells in the lymph node. Cytokine signalling and co-stimulatory mechanisms are triggered to stimulate T- cells. Step (3): B-cell response mechanisms are activated with the support of activated CD4+ T-cells.

Fig. (3)

Comparative analysis highlighting the differences between personalised and precision medicine. Personalised approaches work in compliance with traditional physician values while also taking into consideration the patient’s values and coping skills environment. Precision approaches only take personalised methods a notch higher by using genomic data to obtain an efficient drug protocol.

Fig. (4)

(a) Combination therapy aims at several strategies for treatment and therapy. (b) Rationale for combination approaches.