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Review
. 2025 May 12;87(6):3618-3634.
doi: 10.1097/MS9.0000000000003333. eCollection 2025 Jun.

3D bio-printed scaffolds and smart implants: evaluating functional performance in animal surgery models

A S Vickram  1 , Shofia Saghya Infant  1 , S Manikandan  1 , B Bhavani Sowndharya  1 , G Gulothungan  2 , Hitesh Chopra  3
Affiliations
Review

3D bio-printed scaffolds and smart implants: evaluating functional performance in animal surgery models

A S Vickram et al. Ann Med Surg (Lond). .

Abstract

Surgical models with an application of 3D bio-printed scaffolds and smart implants in animal surgery and their further applicability in regenerative medicine and implantology. This review discusses the functional performance of these advanced biomaterials in terms of mechanical properties, biodegradation rates, cellular responses, and in vivo integration. These 3D bio-printed scaffolds from hydrogels, bioceramics, and polymer composites feature tunable porosity (50-90%), mechanical strengths (0.1-50 MPa) and degradation rates compatible with bone, cartilage, and soft tissue engineering. Smart implants combining biosensors, drug delivery systems, and electrical stimulation in real time facilitate island operation of tissue regeneration. According to animal studies, titanium-based smart implants with surface-modified coatings show 86% osseointegration enhancement. In a rabbit knee model, gelatin-methacryloyl (GelMA) scaffolds for cartilage repair restored over 75% of native tissue function within 12 weeks. In rodent sciatic nerve defects, electrostimulated bio-scaffolds have induced a 40% increase in the rate of nerve regeneration. Concerning challenges, such as immune rejection and vascularization limitation, in addition to the demand for long-term stability, still require further improvements, including enhanced resolution of bioprinting technology and bioactive material offer. This review provides a critical assessment of qualitative and quantitative evidence to drive preclinical and translational studies in the wider context of precision medicine and next-generation, implantable biomaterials.

Keywords: 3D bio-printing; animal surgery models; bio-printed scaffolds; biodegradation; biomaterials; osseointegration; regenerative medicine; smart implants; tissue engineering.

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Conflict of interest statement

Sponsorships or competing interests that may be relevant to content are disclosed at the end of this article. Authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Overview of 3D bioprinting: technologies, bioinks, and applications.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Comparison of small and large animal models in biomedical research.
Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Key factors influencing implant material selection.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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