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. 2025 Jun 10;22(1):71.
doi: 10.1186/s12966-025-01767-y.

Cycling infrastructure as a determinant of cycling for recreation and transportation in Montréal, Canada: a natural experiment using the longitudinal national population health survey

Stephanie A Prince  1   2 , Tyler Thomas  3   4 , Philippe Apparicio  5 , Lancelot Rodrigue  6 , Christopher Jobson  7 , Kathryn L Walker  8 , Gregory P Butler  3 , Rania Wasfi  9
Affiliations

Cycling infrastructure as a determinant of cycling for recreation and transportation in Montréal, Canada: a natural experiment using the longitudinal national population health survey

Stephanie A Prince et al. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. .

Abstract

Background: Cycling is associated with numerous health benefits. Evidence suggests that new cycling infrastructure leads to increases in cycling, though studies of network-level changes are lacking. The objective of this study was to determine the longitudinal effect of cycling infrastructure on cycling engagement among adults living in Montréal, Canada.

Methods: Using data from the National Population Health Survey (1994-2011), this study included adults who resided in the Montréal Census Metropolitan Area for a minimum of two survey cycles (N = 779). Outcomes included self-reported any cycling (transportation or recreation) and time in recreational cycling (minutes/week). Archival maps describing temporal changes in the cycling network for five-year intervals (1991-2011) were classified using the Canadian Bikeway Comfort and Safety Classification System (Can-BICS). Three cycling exposures were calculated from the centroid of each dissemination area: (1) distance to the nearest cycling path categorized by Can-BICS comfort-level (low, medium or high), (2) presence of cycle paths of each comfort level within distance thresholds (low = 321 m, medium = 623 m, high = 1790 m), and (3) density of cycle paths within a 1000 m buffer. Mixed effects logistic regression models estimated associations between cycling infrastructure and any cycling. Linear mixed effects models estimated associations between cycling infrastructure and time spent in recreational cycling.

Results: Over the study period, low- and medium-comfort cycle paths were more prevalent than high-comfort paths and cycling for recreation was more common than cycling for transportation. Exposure to high-comfort paths within an acceptable distance (< 1790 m) was associated with higher odds of any cycling (aOR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.00-1.63). Cumulative exposure to medium-comfort paths within an acceptable distance (< 623 m) was associated with greater time spent in recreational cycling (β = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.03-0.16). Gender-stratified analyses suggested that cumulative exposures to low- and medium-comfort infrastructure within distance thresholds was associated with time spent in recreational cycling (low: β = 0.06, 95% CI: 0.00-0.12, medium: β = 0.13, 95% CI: 0.04-0.22,) among women. No significant effects were observed for distance to the nearest cycling infrastructure for either outcome. Density was not examined in models due to low variation with most buffers having no cycling infrastructure.

Conclusions: This research provides evidence that cycle paths, especially of higher comfort and safety, can promote cycling. Future work is needed to explore cumulative exposures to cycling infrastructure, taking into consideration connectivity of networks, integrated public transport, and accessibility to work.

Keywords: Cycling; Natural experiment; Recreation; Transportation.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Pursuant to Article 2.2 of the Tri-Council Policy Statement on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans ( https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/policy-politique_tcps2-eptc2_2022.html ), Statistics Canada’s NPHS data are considered information that is publicly available through a mechanism set out by legislation or regulation that is protected by law and therefore their use for research purposes does not require research ethics board review, as long as there is no linkage to other datasets. Participation in the NPHS was voluntary with agreements in place to protect the confidentiality of respondents’ information. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Cycling infrastructure expansion in the Montréal Census Metropolitan Area, Québec, 1991 to 2016
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Cycling infrastructure length (a) and prevalence of cycling (b) over time, the Montréal Census Metropolitan Area, Québec
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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