Heavy metals and their relationships with lung function and airway inflammation: insights from a population-based study

Abstract

Background: Humans are commonly exposed to various heavy metals, but their effects on human respiratory health, especially lung function and airway inflammation, remain poorly understood.

Methods: This study included data from the 2011-2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and utilized multivariable linear regression, subgroup analyses, interaction tests, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression to explore the relationship between heavy metals, airway inflammation, and lung function.

Results: This study included 3576 adult participants. In the fully adjusted model, a positive relationship was observed between serum mercury (Hg) and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) [0.20 (0.02, 0.37). Serum cadmium (Cd) had a significant negative connection with FEV1 [-106.22 (-143.64, -68.80)], FVC [-74.94 (-119.22, -30.66)], and FEV1/FVC [-1.35 (-1.82, -0.88)], serum lead (Pb) also showed a significant negative association with FEV₁ [-17.85 (-27.48, -8.21)], FVC [-14.84 (-26.22, -3.45)], and FEV₁/FVC [-0.14 (-0.26, -0.02)], while serum manganese (Mn) exhibited a significant positive relationship with FEV1/FVC [0.09 (0.02, 0.15)]. Selenium (Se) exposure showed a positive association with FEV₁ and FEV₁/FVC in Model 2, although these associations were not significant in the fully adjusted model. Subgroup analyses revealed that Body Mass Index (BMI) influenced the relationship between serum Hg, Mn, Se, Pb, and FeNO. BKMR analysis suggested a negative one-way exposure-response association among Cd exposure and FeNO, FEV1, and FEV1/FVC. The overall effect of co-exposure to the five heavy metals on FeNO levels was inhibitory. WQS analysis identified Cd exposure as the most significant negative associated factor on FeNO, FEV1, and FEV1/FVC. In contrast, Hg exposure was the most significant positive factor associated with FeNO, Se contributed the strongest positive weight to FEV₁ and FEV₁/FVC.

Conclusions: We found inconsistent associations between heavy metals, lung function, and airway inflammation. Cd and Pb exposure was associated with reduced lung function, whereas Hg exposure was positively associated with airway inflammation. Se contributed the strongest positive weight to FEV₁ and FEV₁/FVC in the WQS analysis, although Se was not significantly associated with FEV₁ and FEV₁/FVC in the fully adjusted model. These findings underscore the imperative for strengthened environmental regulation of heavy metal exposure. Future studies should employ more prospective methodologies to clarify these relationships.

Keywords: Fractional exhaled nitric oxide; Heavy metal exposure; Lung function; NHANES; Population-based study.

Fig. 1

Flow chart of participants selection. NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Fig. 2

Associations of Pb, cd, hg, Se, and Mn with FeNO using the BKMR model. (A) The univariate exposure-response association between exposure to Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, Mn and FeNO was calculated by the BKMR model. (B) The joint effect of Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, and Mn mixture on FeNO was calculated by the BKMR model. (C) Single heavy metal effect (95% CI) to FeNO when other heavy metals were fixed at a specific (25th, 50th, 75th). (D) Bivariate exposure-response relationship between five heavy metals and FeNO (a visualization for evaluating interactions). The models were adjusted for age, gender, race, education level, marital status, PIR, BMI, smoking status, and serum cotinine. Cd: Cadmium; Hg: Mercury; Mn: Manganese; Se: Selenium; Pb: Lead; FeNO: Fractional Exhaled nitric oxide; PIR: Family income-to-poverty ratio; BMI: Body mass index

Fig. 3

Associations of Pb, cd, hg, Se, and Mn with FEV1 using the BKMR model. (A) The univariate exposure-response association between exposure to Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, Mn and FEV1 was calculated by the BKMR model. (B) The joint effect of Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, and Mn mixture on FEV1 was calculated by the BKMR model. (C) Single heavy metal effect (95% CI) to FEV1 when other heavy metals were fixed at a specific (25th, 50th, 75th). (D) Bivariate exposure-response relationship between five heavy metals and FEV1 (a visualization for evaluating interactions). The models were adjusted for age, gender, race, education level, marital status, PIR, BMI, smoking status, and serum cotinine. Cd: Cadmium; Hg: Mercury; Mn: Manganese; Se: Selenium; Pb: Lead; FEV1: Forced expiratory volume in 1; PIR: Family income-to-poverty ratio; BMI: Body mass index

Fig. 4

Associations of Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, and Mn with FEV1/FVC using the BKMR model. (A) The univariate exposure-response association between exposure to Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, Mn, and FEV1/FVC was calculated by the BKMR model. (B) The joint effect of Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, and Mn mixture on FEV1/FVC was calculated by the BKMR model. (C) Single heavy metal effect (95% CI) to FEV1/FVC when other heavy metals were fixed at a specific (25th, 50th, 75th). (D) Bivariate exposure-response relationship between five heavy metals and FEV1/FVC (a visualization for evaluating interactions). The models were adjusted for age, gender, race, education level, marital status, PIR, BMI, smoking status, and serum cotinine. Cd: Cadmium; Hg: Mercury; Mn: Manganese; Se: Selenium; Pb: Lead; FEV1: Forced expiratory volume in 1; FVC: Forced vital capacity; PIR: Family income-to-poverty ratio; BMI: Body mass index

Fig. 5

Negative directions of heavy metals with FeNO (A), FEV1 (B), and FEV1/FVC (C) using weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression models. The models were adjusted for age, gender, race, education level, marital status, PIR, BMI, smoking status, and serum cotinine. Cd: Cadmium; Hg: Mercury; Mn: Manganese; Se: Selenium; Pb: Lead; FEV1: Forced expiratory volume in 1; FVC: Forced vital capacity; FeNO: Fractional Exhaled nitric oxide; PIR: Family income-to-poverty ratio; BMI: Body mass index