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Review
. 2025 May 28;26(11):5173.
doi: 10.3390/ijms26115173.

Thyroid Cancer: Epidemiology, Classification, Risk Factors, Diagnostic and Prognostic Markers, and Current Treatment Strategies

Alicja Forma  1 , Karolina Kłodnicka  2 , Weronika Pająk  1 , Jolanta Flieger  3 , Barbara Teresińska  1 , Jacek Januszewski  1 , Jacek Baj  2
Affiliations
Review

Thyroid Cancer: Epidemiology, Classification, Risk Factors, Diagnostic and Prognostic Markers, and Current Treatment Strategies

Alicja Forma et al. Int J Mol Sci. .

Abstract

Thyroid cancer (TC) invariably remains the most prevalent endocrine cancer in the world. Major histological forms of TC include papillary (PTC), follicular (FTC), medullary (MTC), and anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC), each of which has a unique clinical and molecular profile. The incidence rate of TC is higher in females, and unfortunately, it has tended to increase over the last several years. Yet the treatment of advanced or aggressive TC forms has improved recently because of developments in immunotherapy and targeted medicines, including PD-1 inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (e.g., lenvatinib, sorafenib). Imaging, fine-needle aspiration biopsies, and molecular testing are implemented in the diagnostic process, e.g., in search of mutations that might affect prognosis and provide the most successful treatment option. Chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radioactive iodine therapy (RAI), surgery (such as a total thyroidectomy), and molecularly targeted therapies are currently standard treatment modalities in TC. Optimizing patient outcomes requires better diagnostic precision and individualized treatment regimens based on the genetic profile and tumor subtype. To improve survival and quality of life, it is critical to comprehend the complex etiology of TC and the changing therapeutic landscape.

Keywords: anaplastic thyroid cancer; epidemiology; follicular thyroid cancer; medullary thyroid cancer; papillary thyroid cancer; thyroid cancer; thyroid carcinoma.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Modifiable and unmodifiable factors in developing thyroid cancer.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Molecular obesity mechanisms associated with thyroid cancer.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Thyroid cancers, genetics, and surgical treatment.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Immunotherapy in thyroid cancers.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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