From Wave Energy to Electricity: Functional Design and Performance Analysis of Triboelectric Nanogenerators

Abstract

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) offer a self-sustaining power solution for marine regions abundant in resources but constrained by energy availability. Since their pioneering use in wave energy harvesting in 2014, nearly a decade of advancements has yielded nearly thousands of research articles in this domain. Researchers have developed various TENG device structures with diverse functionalities to facilitate their commercial deployment. Nonetheless, there is a gap in comprehensive summaries and performance evaluations of TENG structural designs. This paper delineates six innovative structural designs, focusing on enhancing internal device output and adapting to external environments: high space utilization, hybrid generator, mechanical gain, broadband response, multi-directional operation, and hybrid energy-harvesting systems. We summarize the prevailing trends in device structure design identified by the research community. Furthermore, we conduct a meticulous comparison of the electrical performance of these devices under motorized, simulated wave, and real marine conditions, while also assessing their sustainability in terms of device durability and mechanical robustness. In conclusion, the paper outlines future research avenues and discusses the obstacles encountered in the TENG field. This review aims to offer valuable perspectives for ongoing research and to advance the progress and application of TENG technology.

Keywords: Blue energy; Electrical performance; Functional design; Sustainability analysis; Triboelectric nanogenerator.

Fig. 1

a A literature survey of annual publications on TENG applications in ocean energy, based on the SCI database up to February 2025. b Research hotspots in this field

Fig. 2

Functional design and performance analysis of TENG. Reproduced with permission [36]. Copyright 2019, The Royal Society of Chemistry. Reproduced with permission [37]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission [38, 39]. Copyright 2024, 2019, Wiley–VCH. Reproduced with permission [40]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier

Fig. 3

Working mode of TENG. Reproduced with permission. [44, 50] Copyright 2022, 2024, Cell Press. Reproduced with permission. [, , –47, 51, 53] Copyright 2018, 2024, 2022, 2021, 2024, 2015, 2021, Wiley–VCH. Reproduced with permission. [48] Copyright 2019, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission. [49] Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission. [52] Copyright 2024, Springer

Fig. 4

Multilayer design of contact-separation mode TENG. a, b Self-powered intelligent buoy system, a spring-assisted structure. Reproduced with permission [54, 56]. Copyright 2019, 2021, Elsevier. c-f Butterfly-inspired TENG, bifilar-pendulum-assisted multilayer-structured TENG, space confined multilayer-stack TENG, nonencapsulative pendulum-like paper–based hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [, –59]. Copyright 2019, 2021, 2023, 2019, Wiley–VCH. g Anaconda-shaped spiral multi-layered TENG. Reproduced with permission [44]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. h Multi-layered helical spherical TENG. Reproduced with permission [60]. Copyright 2023, Wiley–VCH. i Elastic self-recovering hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [61]. Copyright 2024, MDPI. j Gas-assisted TENG. Reproduced with permission [62]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. k-n Oblate spheroidal TENG, versatile blue energy TENG, 0.5 m TENG, high-coupled magnetic-levitation hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [, –65]. Copyright 2019, 2023, 2022, 2024, Wiley–VCH. o A multilayer magnetic suspension hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [66]. Copyright 2025, The Royal Society of Chemistry. p a magnetic suspension damped hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [67]. Copyright 2025, Wiley–VCH

Fig. 5

Multilayer design of rolling mode TENG. a Duck-shaped TENG. Reproduced with permission. [76] Copyright 2017, Wiley–VCH. b Anodding duck structure multi-track freestanding triboelectric-layer nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [78]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. c Stacked pendulum-structured TENG. Reproduced with permission [79]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. d Soft ball-based TENG. Reproduced with permission [80]. Copyright 2023, Wiley–VCH. e Spherical TENG. Reproduced with permission [49]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. f-i Spherical TENG, spherical TENG featuring multilayer ‘‘sliced-pizza-shaped’’ electrodes, bioinspired butterfly wings TENG, macroscopic self-assembly network of encapsulated TENG. Reproduced with permission [, –83]. Copyright 2023, 2024, 2022, 2019, Elsevier. j Four structures sphere TENG. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2023, Springer

Fig. 6

Multilayer design of freestanding mode TENG. a multi-layered disk TENG, b high-performance tandem disk TENG. Reproduced with permission [21, 85]. Copyright 2014, 20,119, Elsevier. c Self-adaptive rotating TENG and d spherical eccentric structured TENG. Reproduced with permission [86, 87]. Copyright 2023, 2022, Wiley–VCH. e Multi-cylinder-based TENG. Reproduced with permission [88]. Copyright 2023, MDPI. f Multi-layered swing-structured TENG. Reproduced with permission [47]. Copyright 2024, Wiley–VCH

Fig. 7

The multi-generators design of TENG. a Hybrid wave energy-harvesting nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [90]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. b Fully-packaged ship-shaped hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [93]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. c Magnetic-multiplier-enabled hybrid generator. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2023, American Association for the Advancement of Science. d Triboelectric-electromagnetic-piezoelectric hybrid energy harvester, e spring pendulum coupled hybrid energy harvester. Reproduced with permission [40, 95]. Copyright 2022, 2024, Elsevier. f Bifilar-pendulum coupled hybrid nanogenerator. Reproduced with permission [74]. Copyright 2022, Wiley–VCH. g Multifunctional hybrid power unit, h fully packed spheroidal hybrid generator. Reproduced with permission [96, 97]. Copyright 2017, 2020, Wiley–VCH

Fig. 8

Multi-frequency design of TENG. a Mechanical regulation TENG. Reproduced with permission [125]. Copyright 2020, Wiley–VCH. b Double rocker TENG, c multi-purpose triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator, d frequency-multiplied cylindrical TENG. Reproduced with permission [112, 126, 127]. Copyright 2021, 2022, 2022, Elsevier. e A fur-brush TENG. Reproduced with permission [128]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. F Savonius flapping wing triboelectric–electromagnetic hybrid generator, g accelerated charge transfer TENG. Reproduced with permission [117, 129]. Copyright 2024, 2024, Elsevier

Fig. 9

Broadband design of TENG. a Swing-rotation switching structure TENG. Reproduced with permission [131]. Copyright 2022, Wiley–VCH. b Contactless mode triggering-based ultra-robust hybridized nanogenerator, c rotational pendulum hybrid generator, d broadband rotary hybrid generator. Reproduced with permission [–134]. Copyright 2021, 2021, 2021, Elsevier

Fig. 10

The multi-direction design of TENG. a Tensegrity TENG. Reproduced with permission [136]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. b Multiple-frequency TENG. Reproduced with permission [137]. Copyright 2020, Wiley–VCH. c Flower-like TENG. Reproduced with permission [138]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. d Hybridized arbitrary wave motion sensing system. Reproduced with permission [139]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. e Spherical TENG. Reproduced with permission [70]. Copyright 2020, The Royal Society of Chemistry. f Hybridized ocean wave nanogenerator, g multilayer wavy-structured robust. Reproduced with permission [140, [141]. Copyright 2018, 2016, Elsevier. h Spherical eccentric structured TENG. Reproduced with permission [87]. Copyright 2022, Wiley–VCH. i 3D spherical-shaped water TENG, j a new curvature effect TENG, k pendulum TENG. Reproduced with permission [142, [143, [144]. Copyright 2017, 2023, 2019, Elsevier. l Elastic-connection and soft-contact TENG. Reproduced with permission [145]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. m Active resonance TENG. Reproduced with permission [146]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. n Pendulum hybrid generator. Reproduced with permission [147]. Copyright 2020, AIP. o Self-sustainable autonomous smart pool monitoring system. Reproduced with permission [148]. Copyright 2023, Wiley–VCH. p Torus structured TENG. Reproduced with permission [37]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. q Barycenter self-adapting TENG. Reproduced with permission [149]. Copyright 2022, Wiley–VCH. r Simple fully symmetric TENG. Reproduced with permission [150]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier

Fig. 11

Multifunctional design of TENG. a Pulsed TENG. Reproduced with permission [151]. Copyright 2022, Wiley–VCH. b Waterproof triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid generator. Reproduced with permission [152]. Copyright 2016, Wiley–VCH. c Self-charging power system. Reproduced with permission [153]. Copyright 2021, Nature Portfolio. d Multifunctional TENG. Reproduced with permission [154]. Copyright 2017, Wiley–VCH

Fig. 12

Analytical models for TENG optimization. a Dynamical analysis of pendulum-type TENG under unidirectional square-wave excitation. Reproduced with permission [39]. Copyright 2019, Wiley–VCH. b Soft sphere-shell contact characteristics, c solid cylinder rolls inside the cylindrical shell, d the simulation of the nodding duck wave energy harvester, e the numerical model of the self-powered buoy and its calibration and validation, f dynamic responses of the electret-based wave energy converter. Reproduced with permission [, –163]. Copyright 2021, 2020, 2023, 2022, 2023, Elsevier

Fig. 13

Average power of advanced TENGs and power conversion in water environments and motor. Reproduced with permission [44]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission [47, 74]. Copyright 2023, 2022, Wiley–VCH. Reproduced with permission [164]. Copyright 2023, The Royal Society of Chemistry. Reproduced with permission [84]. Copyright 2023, Springer (Here, "Muti" represents multilayer design, “Mech” and “Mech-Gain” denote mechanical gain design, “Hyb” and “Hybrid,” respectively, signify hybrid generator. Additionally, “Muti-CS”, “Muti-FR” and “Muti-Rl,” respectively, stand for TENG in contact-separation mode, freestanding mode and rolling mode within the multilayer design.)

Fig. 14

Real-sea power of TENG. a Hybrid generator for energy scavenging in real water, b real-time application of SB-HG, c real-time testing of hybridized nanogenerator in Jialing River, d T-TENG in the real marine environment. Reproduced with permission [97, 108, 133, 136]. Copyright 2019, 2020, 2020, 2023, Elsevier. e LED array powered by water waves in Victoria Harbor. Reproduced with permission [176]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. f Output performance of the SPC-HEH in real water. Reproduced with permission [40]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier

Fig. 15

Durability of TENGs. a Durability of WS-TENG tested for three days. Reproduced with permission [182]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. b SEM images contrasting PTFE film surfaces worn by Cu and rabbit fur. Reproduced with permission [128]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. c SEM images of FEP film after 3-month operation with PA and without PA. Reproduced with permission [116]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. d Durability of zigzag multi-layered TENG. Reproduced with permission [59]. Copyright 2019, Wiley–VCH. e Durability of the GA-TENG. Reproduced with permission [62]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. f Stability of ML-TENG. Reproduced with permission [38]. Copyright 2024, Wiley–VCH. g Durability test for the BBW-TENG within 45 days. Reproduced with permission [82]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. Durability of the h SS-TENG and i RS-TENG at various cycles. j Mechanical study of different TENG, durability test and k output power of the ES-TENG. Reproduced with permission [45, 86, 145, 169]. Copyright 2020, 2023, 2023, 2021, Wiley–VCH

Fig. 16

Robustness of TENGs. a Effect of temperature on the triboelectrification at the solid–liquid interface. Reproduced with permission [187]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier. b Effect of humidity on the charges of TENG. Reproduced with permission [128]. Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH. c Comparison of short-circuit currents (I_sc) under different environment, d output of TENG at different pH values of water, e the impact of salinity on the WS-TENG, f outputof the SSEP-TENG with different salt solutions. Reproduced with permission [, –191]. Copyright 2018, 2016, 2019, 2024, Elsevier

Fig. 17

Prospects for developing TENGs to harness water wave energy