Nanobiosensors for revolutionizing parasitic infections diagnosis: a critical review to improve global health with an update on future challenges prospect

Abstract

Parasitic infections remain a serious public health issue globally, requiring prompt and precise diagnosis. Traditional diagnostic techniques, such as microscopic examinations, immunological methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and molecular tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), are standard tools for parasite identification. However, traditional methods are time-consuming and have less sensitivity and specificity than nanobiosensors. Hence, the current review aims to analyze the nanobiosensors in detecting globally important human parasites, i.e., Plasmodium, Leishmania, Echinococcus, Schistosoma, and Taenia, emphasizing their significance in the early detection and analyzing their future challenges. Nanobiosensors provide efficient, sensitive, and rapid diagnosis of parasites' antigens or genetic material using nanomaterials, such as nanowires, quantum dots (QDs), metallic nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes, as well as identification of biomarkers, including excretory-secretory products and microRNAs. Nanobiosensors can utilize diverse nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) in Plasmodium, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) functionalized with anti-EgAgB antibodies for Echinococcus, and QDs labeled with DNA probes for the detection of Leishmania kDNA. Regarding Schistosoma, graphene oxide (GO)-based nanobiosensors with a soluble egg antigen (SEA) binding, and for Taenia, metallic nanobiosensors can detect parasites' biomarkers even at low concentrations. Challenges for using nanobiosensors in parasitic infection diagnosis include limitations in mass production, biological matrix interference, and the need for standardization. Development of multiplex nanobiosensors using polymer nanofibers or hybrid nanoparticles for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens, along with integration of lab-on-a-chip technology for point-of-care (PoC) platforms, is an important future prospect that needs to be worked on. In conclusion, considering the rapidly ongoing advancement of nanobiosensors, it is expected that they will aid the detection, treatment, and management of parasitic infections by providing new avenues for early detection, improved treatment, and improved disease management in the future.

Keywords: Biomarkers; Helminth; Nanobiosensors; Nanotechnology; Parasites; Protozoa.

Fig. 1

Overview of nanobiosensor fabrication and characterization. A Synthesis and characterization of nanobiosensors, highlighting essential techniques and processes involved. Functionalized with biological molecules such as antibodies or DNA strands for specific analyte detection. B Integration with microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip technologies enhances efficacy and allows quick and multiplexed analysis

Fig. 2

Overview of gold-based and DNA nanobiosensors for malaria detection. A This point shows an electrochemical nanobiosensor with a gold electrode supported on metal oxide nanoparticles, depicting the detection process of malaria biomarkers. Moreover, diagrams show the ELISA test setup targeting P. falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) and the aptasensor system detecting Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) proteins. This part features gold-based sensors, highlighting the immobilization of monoclonal antibodies and the sandwich ELISA setup. B This section shows species-specific DNA nanosensors for detecting P. falciparum, P. malaria, and P. ovale, emphasizing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in detection

Fig. 3

Current illustration depicts the use of various nanoparticles to detect biomarkers associated with Leishmania parasites. Gold nanoparticles are used with non-protein-coding DNA probes to detect L. major kDNA. Cadmium selenite quantum dots probes are combined with magnetic beads to detect Leishmania-specific surface antigens and DNA. Copper nanoparticles functionalized with 2-mercaptobenzoxazole detect CL based on volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath. These NPs offer sensitive and specific detection methods for various forms of leishmaniasis, aiding in timely diagnosis and effective disease management

Fig. 4

Application of a nanobiosensor for the rapid diagnosis of helminthic infections. Panel A highlights the infection routes of Echinococcus granulosus, targeting the lungs and liver, with detection focused on antigens within cysts. The clinical stage is indicated by a color change from red to yellow. Panel B details the infection routes of taeniasis/cysticercosis, transmitted through infected pork or beef, leading to cysticerci formation. The nanobiosensor targets the brain and muscles, detecting T. solium antigens, and employs AuNP-based biosensors utilizing localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) technology for diagnosis

Fig. 5

Advantages, challenges, and future directions of nanobiosensors in parasitic disease detection. A Key advantages include high sensitivity and specificity, comparable PCR-level accuracy, and fast response times. B Important challenges remain, such as nanoparticle toxicity and user-friendliness for non-experts. C To address these issues, improvements like biocompatible coatings (e.g., nanocapsules) are proposed to enhance stability and reduce nanotoxicity. D Future innovations focus on mass production for point-of-care diagnostics and applications in personalized medicine