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. 2025 Jun;31(4):e70137.
doi: 10.1111/jep.70137.

Redefining Representativeness of a Sample in Causal Terms

Michał Sikorski  1 , Alexander Gebharter  1 , Barbara Osimani  1
Affiliations

Redefining Representativeness of a Sample in Causal Terms

Michał Sikorski et al. J Eval Clin Pract. 2025 Jun.

Abstract

Rationale: Despite its crucial role, sample representativeness remains a controversial topic in the methodology of medical science. There is an ongoing debate not only about how best to define and ensure the representativeness of a sample (e.g., Rudolph et al. 2023; Porta 2016), but also about whether representativeness is worth pursuing at all (e.g., Rothman et al. 2013).

Aims and objectives: Our aim is to construct a formalised, precise, and practical conceptualisation of sample representativeness.

Methods: We employ the established framework of causal Bayesian networks to develop such a conceptualisation.

Results: We propose a precise formal definition of sample representativeness that translates into clear and actionable methodological guidance. Additionally, we provide examples and a checklist to illustrate the application of the proposed conceptualisation.

Conclusion: We believe that the presented definition will facilitate further discussion of the issue of representativeness and prove useful to scientists in practice.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Simple exemplary causal model.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Causal structures of the sample (a) and the target population (b).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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    1. Nohr E. A. and Olsen J., “Commentary: Epidemiologists Have Debated Representativeness for More Than 40 Years Has the Time Come to Move On?,” International Journal of Epidemiology 42, no. 4 (2013): 1016–1017. - PubMed

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