Fabrication of Organic/Inorganic Nanocomposites: From Traditional Synthesis to Additive Manufacturing

Abstract

Nanocomposites, are materials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of standard material, have emerged as a versatile class of materials with tunable properties for a wide range of applications. Traditional fabrication approaches, including physical blending, in situ polymerization, layer-by-layer assembly, and sol-gel synthetic methods, have been widely employed to develop nanocomposites with high structural homogeneity and tailored properties. This review presents a cohesive and comprehensive overview of nanocomposite fabrication methods, spanning from conventional synthetic strategies to cutting-edge approaches such as 3D printing technologies. How 3D printing has driven innovations in nanocomposite applications, particularly in biomedicine, soft robotics, electronics, and water treatment, is explored. Additionally, key challenges in 3D-printed nanocomposite development are discussed, and emerging advancements such as 5D printing, artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted material optimization, nanoscale additive manufacturing, and closed-loop recycling systems are highlighted. By bridging traditional synthesis with cutting-edge fabrication techniques, this review aims to provide insights into the future directions of nanocomposite research and applications.

Keywords: 3D printing; biomedicine; hybrid nanoparticles; soft robots; water treatment.

Figure 1

a) Number of publications (2004–2024) retrieved from Web of Science using the keywords “(Nanocomposites* OR nanoparticle* OR nanomaterial*) AND (“3D Printing” OR “Additive Manufacturing”)”; b) Size range spanning nanoparticles, hybrid nanoparticles, and nanocomposites fabricated via conventional synthesis or advanced 3D printing techniques; c) Keyword co‐occurrence analysis (2014–2024) visualized using VOSviewer, highlighting dominant terms such as nanocomposites, 3D printing, and mechanical properties, underscoring their research significance.

Figure 2

Overview of synthesis strategies of nanomaterials ranging from nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles to nanocomposites. Created with BioRender.com.

Figure 3

The main properties of 3D‐printed nanocomposites are achieved by integrating hybrid nanoparticles into the matrix to enhance mechanical strength, functional performance, and other material characteristics. Created with BioRender.com.

Figure 4

Biomedical applications and current developments of 3D‐printed nanocomposites with hybrid nanoparticles. a) Key biomedical applications of 3D‐printed nanocomposites. Created with BioRender.com. b) Schematic representation of noninvasive 3D bioprinting for in vivo living tissue fabrication using bioink containing UCNP@LAP nanoinitiators. An ear‐shaped construct was printed subcutaneously in BALB/c nude mice and observed after 1 month. Scale bar: 5 mm. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 128 ]} Copyright 2012, American Association for the Advancement of Science. c) Schematic of noninvasive bone fixation enabled by UCNP‐assisted 3D bioprinting in vivo. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 129 ]} Copyright 2024, Wiley‐VCH. d). A schematic diagram of a soft valve controlled by an external magnetic field shows targeted drug delivery with a permanent magnet and drug release in a stomach model using a 30 Hz, 30 mT high‐frequency magnetic field. Reproduced under the terms of the CC‐BY Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 130 ]} Copyright 2024, The Authors, published by Springer Nature.

Figure 5

Innovations in 3D‐printed composites for soft robots. a). 3D‐printed liquid crystalline elastomer integrated with gold nanorods, showcasing efficient photothermal actuation. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 110 ]} Copyright 2024, Wiley‐VCH. b). 3D‐printed nanocomposites containing LMNPs, enabling near‐infrared (NIR)‐driven responsiveness in soft robots. Reproduced under the terms of the CC‐BY Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 76 ]} Copyright 2023, The Authors, published by Springer Nature. c). Hybrid nanocomposites created through 3D printing, offering advanced shape transformation for soft robotic systems. Reproduced under the terms of the CC‐BY Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 71 ]} Copyright 2024, The Authors, published by Wiley‐VCH. d). Ferromagnetic soft robots fabricated via 3D printing for multimodal locomotion. Reproduced with permission^{[ 145 ]} Copyright 2018, Springer Nature.

Figure 6

a). Integration of multiple techniques using fillers, binders, and surface modifiers with toluene for printing radiation‐shielding composites. Reproduced with permission^{[ 157 ]} Copyright 2024, Wiley‐VCH. b). 3D‐printed porous lattice sponge nanocomposites for skin‐inspired, flexible pressure sensors. Reproduced under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 158 ]} Copyright 2024, The Authors, published by Wiley‐VCH. c). Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for composite organo‐hydrogel filaments via shear‐induced alignment in DIW 3D printing, demonstrating a multifunctional smart sensing glove with conductive fingertips, a touchpad, and strain sensors for touchscreen interaction and robotics control. Reproduced under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 159 ]} Copyright 2024, The Authors, published by Springer Nature. d). Integration of 3D‐printed electronic devices into soft robots, enabling a chameleon‐inspired background‐matching strategy for Elbot. Reproduced under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 160 ]} Copyright 2022, The Authors, published by Springer Nature.

Figure 7

3D‐printed nanocomposites for wastewater treatment. a). 3D‐printed hydrophobic nano silica‐filled membranes with an ordered porous structure for oil‐water separation. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 168 ]} Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. b). 3D‐printed Pd/TiO₂ nanocomposites tailored for the reduction of high concentrations of 4‐nitrophenol in aqueous environments. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 169 ]} Copyright 2020. American Chemical Society. c). 3D‐printed MIL‐101/Polymer composite is regarded as a reusable adsorbent for the removal of phenyl arsenic acid from water solutions. Reproduced with permission.^{[ 170 ]} Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. d). A schematic diagram illustrates the conversion of CO₂ into CNTs for printing carbon‐based nanocomposites. Reproduced under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).^{[ 171 ]} Copyright 2024, The Authors, published by Springer Nature.

Figure 8

Schematic illustration highlights the main challenges in 3D‐printed nanocomposites containing hybrid nanoparticles. These challenges include material selection, hybrid nanoparticle‐matrix interactions, long‐term durability, health and sustainability concerns, and industrial scalability. Created using BioRender.com.

Figure 9

The perspectives of 3D‐printed nanocomposites with hybrid nanoparticles. a) 5D‐printed nanocomposites, integrating 3D printing with time‐dependent shape transformation and embedded information; b) Emerging techniques for achieving nanoscale resolution in 3D‐printed objects; c) Artificial intelligence (AI)‐driven advancements for optimizing 3D printing and nanocomposite performance; d) Closed‐loop recycling enabled by 3D‐printed nanocomposites. Created with BioRender.com.