A Review on 3D-Printed Miniaturized Devices for Point-of-Care-Testing Applications

Abstract

Integrating three-dimensional printing (3DP) in healthcare has modernized medical diagnostics and therapies by presenting various accurate, efficient, and patient-specific tailored solutions. This review critically examines the integration of 3DP in the development of miniaturized devices specifically tailored for point-of-care testing (PoCT) applications in healthcare. Focusing on progressive additive manufacturing techniques, such as material extrusion, vat photopolymerization, and powder bed fusion, the review classifies and evaluates their contributions toward designing compact, portable, and patient-specific diagnostic devices. Unlike previous reviews that treat 3DP or PoCT generically, this work uniquely bridges the technical innovations of 3DP with clinical applications by analyzing wearable sensors, biosensors, lab-on-chip systems, and microfluidic platforms. It highlights recent case studies, performance metrics, and the role of 3DP in enhancing diagnostic speed, accessibility, and personalization. The review also explores challenges such as material standardization and regulatory hurdles while outlining future directions involving artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and multifunctional integration. This focused assessment establishes 3DP as a transformative force in decentralized and precision healthcare.

Keywords: 3D printing; additive manufacturing; biosensors; medical diagnosis; point-of-care testing; precision healthcare.

Figure 8

(A–D) Three-dimensionally printed ECL miniaturized platforms for the detection of various bioanalytes, replicated from [3,8,19,111,112], with the permission of Elsevier; (E) chemiluminescence platform for lactate detection, replicated from [113]; (F) 3D-printed ECL platforms with portable dark room to detect glucose, replicated from [114].

Figure 1

Comparison of conventional lab-based testing (left) and PoCT (right). PoCT offers faster diagnosis by reducing steps such as sample transport and centralized lab processing.

Figure 2

Schematic illustration of types of processes in 3DP.

Figure 3

Illustration of the various methods that can be used in 3D printing: (A) the Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) method, where melted plastic is deposited layer by layer to build objects; (B) the stereolithography (SLA) method, which uses light to cure the liquid resin layer by layer; (C) the powder bed fusion (PBF) method, where a laser or electron beam fuses powdered material to create solid parts; (D) the laminated objection manufacturing (LOM) method, which builds and cuts layers of material to create the object; (E) the direct energy deposition (DED) method, which uses focused energy to melt the material as it is added to build up an object; (F) Binder Jetting (BJ) refers to a 3D printing technique that produces items by depositing a liquid binder in a powder bed.

Figure 4

Illustrations of various 3D-printed (3DP) wearable sensor technologies designed for health monitoring and flexible electronics: (A) a piezoresistive flexible strain sensor using multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) for wearable sensing applications, adapted from [72], with permission from Springer; (B) a wearable biosensor developed with soft 3D-printed materials for personalized healthcare monitoring, adapted from [74], with the permission of Wiley; (C) a stretchable tactile sensor created through 3D printing for monitoring pulse and finger movements, ideal for wearable electronics, adapted from [73], with the permission of Wiley; (D) a capacitive sensor produced using 3DP for wearable technology applications, adapted from [75], with the permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 5

(A) A 3D-printed wearable patch for continuous health monitoring through sweat analysis, taken from [76], with the permission of Wiley. (B) A 3D-printed platform for colorimetric and mechanical sensing, designed for continuous health monitoring applications, taken from [77], copyright American Chemical Society. (C) A 3D-printed wearable sensor for monitoring knee joint movement, taken from [78], copyright IEEE. (D) Flexible piezoresistive sensors for detecting throat activities such as swallowing, speaking, and breathing [79] (a–e), with the permission of Wiley. (E) Three-dimensionally printed eyeglasses capable of detecting body movements and posture changes, taken from [80], with the permission of ACS.

Figure 6

Various innovative 3DP electrochemical sensing devices: (A) a 3D-printed continuous flow system using MWCNT electrodes, adapted from [96], copyright MDPI; (B) a microfluidic device created via 3D printing for the simultaneous detection of insulin and ATP, adapted from [97], copyright Elsevier; (C) a 3D-printed chip designed to detect cholesterol and choline at the same time, adapted from [98]; (D) a conductive filament-based electrode developed using 3D printing for detecting hydrogen peroxide, adapted from [99], copyright Elsevier; and (E) silver microelectrode arrays, fabricated through 3D printing, used for detecting both hydrogen peroxide and glucose, adapted from [100], copyright Elsevier.

Figure 7

Figure 8 illustrates various innovative applications of 3D-printed (3DP) sensors and electrodes: (A) a 3D-printed conductive filament-based electrode used to detect L-methionine [101], copyright Elsevier; (B) 3D-printed biosensors designed for detecting harmful pathogens [102], copyright MDPI; (C) a 3DP three-electrode device capable of detecting both SARS-CoV-2 and creatinine [103], copyright MDPI; (D) a 3DP sensor developed for identifying caffeine and mercury [104], copyright Elsevier; (E) 3D-printed electrodes used for detecting the CD133 marker, important in cancer research [25]; and (F) a 3DP electrode designed to detect mycotoxins in food, ensuring safety and quality [105], copyright Elsevier.

Figure 9

Various 3D-printed lab-on-a-chip (3DP-LoC) platforms designed for biomedical and diagnostic applications: (A) a 3DP-LoC device for detecting endothelial growth factor and angiopoietin-2 biomarkers, taken from [116], copyright RSC; (B) a microfluidic device created through 3D printing for glucose detection, taken from [58], copyright RSC; (C) a 3DP-LoC setup designed for fluorescence microscopy-based calcium imaging, taken from [117], copyright MDPI; (D) a 3DP chemical sensor for PoCT application setup, taken from [118], copyright MDPI; (E) a 3DP-LoC microfluidic chip used for protein quantification, taken from [119], copyright ACS.

Figure 10

(A) Three-dimensionally printed microfluidic analysis system for continuous monitoring of human tissue metabolite levels, replicated from [88], copyright ACS. (B) Polyacrylate-based 3DP microfluidic aptasensor platform, replicated from [120], copyright springer. (C) Three-dimensionally printed portable microfluidic biosensor for malaria diagnosis, replicated from [121], copyright Elsevier. (D) Three-dimensionally printed rapid and reagentless detection of thrombin microfluidic platform, replicated from [122], copyright Elsevier.

Figure 11

Diagrammatic representation of challenges associated with 3DP-PoCT devices and future scope for exploring opportunities.