. 2025 Jun 25;20(6):e0323938.

doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0323938. eCollection 2025.

Multi-region investigation of 'man' as default in attitudes

Curtis Edward Phills^{1

2}, Jeremy K Miller³, Erin M Buchanan⁴, Amanda Williams⁵, Chanel Meyers², Elizabeth R Brown¹, Janis Zickfeld⁶, Selina Volsa⁷, Stefan Stieger⁷, Elisabeth Oberzaucher⁸, Vinka Mlakic⁷, Martin Vasilev⁹, İlker Dalgar¹⁰, Sami Çoksan^{11

12}, Sinem Söylemez¹³, Çağlar Solak¹³, Asil Ali Özdoğru^{14

15}, Belemir Çoktok¹⁵, Chun-Chia Kung¹⁶, Panita Suavansri¹⁷, Harry Manley^{17

18}, Sara Álvarez-Solas¹⁹, Danilo Zambrano Ricaurte²⁰, Ivan Ropovik^{21

22

23}, Gabriel Baník²⁴, Peter Babinčák^{23

24}, Matúš Adamkovič^{25

26}, Pavol Kačmár²⁷, Monika Hricová²⁷, Jozef Bavoľár²⁷, Lisa Li²⁸, Fei Gao²⁸, Zhong Chen²⁸, Vanja Ković²⁹, Vasilije Gvozdenović²⁹, Patrícia Arriaga³⁰, Katarzyna Filip³¹, Krystian Barzykowski³¹, Sylwia Adamus³¹, Gerit Pfuhl^{32

33}, Sarah E Martiny³², Kristoffer Klevjer³², Frederike S Woelfert³⁴, Christian K Tamnes³⁴, Jonas R Kunst³⁴, Max Korbmacher³⁵, Margaret Messiah Singh³⁶, Sraddha Pradhan³⁶, Noorshama Parveen³⁶, Arti Parganiha³⁶, Babita Pande³⁶, Pratibha Kujur³⁶, Priyanka Chandel³⁶, Niv Reggev³⁷, Aviv Mokady³⁷, Marietta Papadatou-Pastou³⁸, Roxane Schnepper³⁹, Jan Philipp Röer³⁹, Tilli Ripp³⁹, Ekaterina Pronizius⁴⁰, Claus Lamm⁴⁰, Martin Voracek⁴¹, Jerome Olsen⁴¹, Janina Enachescu⁴¹, Carlota Batres⁴², Daniel Storage⁴³, Carmel A Levitan⁴⁴, Manyu Li⁴⁵, Leigh Ann Vaughn⁴⁶, William J Chopik⁴⁷, Kathleen Schmidt⁴⁸, Peter R Mallik⁴⁹, Savannah Lewis⁵⁰, Brynna Leach⁴⁸, Brianna Jurosic⁴⁸, David Moreau⁵¹, Izuchukwu Lawrence Gabriel Ndukaihe⁵², Nwadiogo Chisom Arinze⁵², Steve M J Janssen⁵³, Alicia Foo⁵³, Chrystalle B Y Tan⁵⁴, Glenn P Williams⁵⁵, Danny Riis⁵⁶, Bethany M Lane⁵⁶, Dermot Lynott⁵⁷, Thomas Rhys Evans⁵⁸, Miroslav Sirota⁵⁹, Dawn L Holford⁵⁹, Kaitlyn M Werner⁶⁰, Kelly Wang⁶⁰, Marina Milyavskaya⁶⁰, Ian D Stephen^{61

62}, Robert M Ross⁶³, Andrew Roberts⁶¹, Omid Ghasemi⁶⁴, Niklas K Steffens⁶⁵, Kim Peters⁶⁵, Barnaby Dixson⁶⁶, Marco Antonio Correa Varella⁶⁷, Jaroslava V Valentova⁶⁷, Anthonieta Looman Mafra⁶⁸, Rafael Ming Chi Santos Hsu⁶⁷, Yago Luksevicius de Moraes⁶⁷, Luana Oliveira da Silva⁶⁷, Caio Santos Alves da Silva⁶⁷, Mai Helmy⁶⁹, Mariah Balderrama³, Ali H Al-Hoorie⁷⁰, Tyler McGee⁴², Zahir Vally⁷¹, Attila Szuts⁷², Patrick Forscher^{73

74}, Pablo Bernabeu^{75

76}, Balazs Aczel⁷², Anna Szabelska⁷⁷, Sau-Chin Chen⁷⁸, Christopher R Chartier⁴⁸, Zoltan Kekecs⁷²

Affiliations

¹ Department of Psychology, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America.
² Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America.
³ Department of Psychology, Willamette University, Salem, Oregon, United States of America.
⁴ Analytics, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States of America.
⁵ Waterloo Regional Police Service, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada.
⁶ Department of Management Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
⁷ Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria.
⁸ Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria.
⁹ Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Poole, United Kingdom.
¹⁰ Department of Psychology, Ankara Medipol University, Ankara, Turkey.
¹¹ Department of Psychology, Erzurum Technical University, Erzurum, Turkey.
¹² Network for Economic and Social Trends, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
¹³ Department of Psychology, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey.
¹⁴ Department of Psychology, Marmara University, İstanbul, Turkey.
¹⁵ Department of Psychology, Üsküdar University, İstanbul, Turkey.
¹⁶ Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
¹⁷ Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
¹⁸ Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, Education, and Languages, HELP University Subang 2, Shah Alam, Malaysia.
¹⁹ Ecosystem Engineer, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Tena, Ecuador.
²⁰ Faculty of Psychology, Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Colombia.
²¹ Institute for Research and Development of Education, Faculty of Education, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
²² Faculty of Education, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²³ Institute of Psychology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²⁴ Pavol Jozef Safarik University, Kosice, Slovakia.
²⁵ Institute of Social Sciences, CSPS, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
²⁶ University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
²⁷ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafarik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
²⁸ Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macau, China.
²⁹ Laboratory for Neurocognition and Applied Cognition, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
³⁰ Iscte-University Institute of Lisbon, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal.
³¹ Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
³² Department of Psychology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
³³ Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
³⁴ Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
³⁵ Department of Health and Functioning, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway.
³⁶ School of Studies in Life Science, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India.
³⁷ Department of Psychology and School of Brain Sciences and Cognition, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheba, Israel.
³⁸ School of Education, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
³⁹ Department of Psychology and Psychotherapy, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
⁴⁰ Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
⁴¹ Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria.
⁴² Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, United States of America.
⁴³ Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado, United States of America.
⁴⁴ Department of Cognitive Science, Occidental College, Los Angeles, California United States of America.
⁴⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, Louisiana, United States of America.
⁴⁶ Department of Psychology, Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York, United States of America.
⁴⁷ Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America.
⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, Ashland University, Ashland, Ohio, United States of America.
⁴⁹ Hubbard Decision Research, Glen Ellyn, Illinois, United States of America.
⁵⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States of America.
⁵¹ School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
⁵² Department of Psychology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria.
⁵³ School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia.
⁵⁴ School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom.
⁵⁵ Faculty of Health Sciences and Wellbeing, School of Psychology, University of Sunderland, Sunderland, United Kingdom.
⁵⁶ Division of Psychology, School of Social and Health Sciences, Abertay University, Dundee, United Kingdom.
⁵⁷ Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland.
⁵⁸ School of Social, Psychological and Behavioural Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom.
⁵⁹ Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom.
⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
⁶¹ Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁶² Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
⁶³ Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁶⁴ School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia.
⁶⁵ School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
⁶⁶ School of Health Psychology, University of the Sunshine Coast Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
⁶⁷ Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
⁶⁸ Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
⁶⁹ Psychology Department, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman.
⁷⁰ Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
⁷¹ Department of Clinical Psychology, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emerates.
⁷² Institute of Psychology, ELTE, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary.
⁷³ LIP/PC2S, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France.
⁷⁴ Busara Center for Behavioral Economics, Nairobi, Kenya.
⁷⁵ Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom.
⁷⁶ Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
⁷⁷ Institute of Cognition and Culture, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom.
⁷⁸ Department of Human Development and Psychology, Tzu-Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.

PMID: 40560856
PMCID: PMC12193045
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0323938

Multi-region investigation of 'man' as default in attitudes

Curtis Edward Phills et al. PLoS One. 2025.

. 2025 Jun 25;20(6):e0323938.

doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0323938. eCollection 2025.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Department of Psychology, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America.
² Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America.
³ Department of Psychology, Willamette University, Salem, Oregon, United States of America.
⁴ Analytics, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, United States of America.
⁵ Waterloo Regional Police Service, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada.
⁶ Department of Management Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
⁷ Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria.
⁸ Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria.
⁹ Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Poole, United Kingdom.
¹⁰ Department of Psychology, Ankara Medipol University, Ankara, Turkey.
¹¹ Department of Psychology, Erzurum Technical University, Erzurum, Turkey.
¹² Network for Economic and Social Trends, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
¹³ Department of Psychology, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey.
¹⁴ Department of Psychology, Marmara University, İstanbul, Turkey.
¹⁵ Department of Psychology, Üsküdar University, İstanbul, Turkey.
¹⁶ Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
¹⁷ Faculty of Psychology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
¹⁸ Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, Education, and Languages, HELP University Subang 2, Shah Alam, Malaysia.
¹⁹ Ecosystem Engineer, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Tena, Ecuador.
²⁰ Faculty of Psychology, Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Bogotá, Colombia.
²¹ Institute for Research and Development of Education, Faculty of Education, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
²² Faculty of Education, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²³ Institute of Psychology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia.
²⁴ Pavol Jozef Safarik University, Kosice, Slovakia.
²⁵ Institute of Social Sciences, CSPS, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
²⁶ University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
²⁷ Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafarik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
²⁸ Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macau, China.
²⁹ Laboratory for Neurocognition and Applied Cognition, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
³⁰ Iscte-University Institute of Lisbon, CIS-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal.
³¹ Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
³² Department of Psychology, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
³³ Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
³⁴ Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
³⁵ Department of Health and Functioning, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway.
³⁶ School of Studies in Life Science, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India.
³⁷ Department of Psychology and School of Brain Sciences and Cognition, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheba, Israel.
³⁸ School of Education, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
³⁹ Department of Psychology and Psychotherapy, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
⁴⁰ Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
⁴¹ Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria.
⁴² Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, United States of America.
⁴³ Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado, United States of America.
⁴⁴ Department of Cognitive Science, Occidental College, Los Angeles, California United States of America.
⁴⁵ Department of Psychology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, Louisiana, United States of America.
⁴⁶ Department of Psychology, Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York, United States of America.
⁴⁷ Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America.
⁴⁸ Department of Psychology, Ashland University, Ashland, Ohio, United States of America.
⁴⁹ Hubbard Decision Research, Glen Ellyn, Illinois, United States of America.
⁵⁰ Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States of America.
⁵¹ School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
⁵² Department of Psychology, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria.
⁵³ School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia.
⁵⁴ School of Psychology and Vision Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom.
⁵⁵ Faculty of Health Sciences and Wellbeing, School of Psychology, University of Sunderland, Sunderland, United Kingdom.
⁵⁶ Division of Psychology, School of Social and Health Sciences, Abertay University, Dundee, United Kingdom.
⁵⁷ Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland.
⁵⁸ School of Social, Psychological and Behavioural Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom.
⁵⁹ Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom.
⁶⁰ Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
⁶¹ Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁶² Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
⁶³ Department of Philosophy, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
⁶⁴ School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia.
⁶⁵ School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
⁶⁶ School of Health Psychology, University of the Sunshine Coast Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
⁶⁷ Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
⁶⁸ Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
⁶⁹ Psychology Department, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman.
⁷⁰ Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
⁷¹ Department of Clinical Psychology, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emerates.
⁷² Institute of Psychology, ELTE, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary.
⁷³ LIP/PC2S, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France.
⁷⁴ Busara Center for Behavioral Economics, Nairobi, Kenya.
⁷⁵ Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom.
⁷⁶ Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
⁷⁷ Institute of Cognition and Culture, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom.
⁷⁸ Department of Human Development and Psychology, Tzu-Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.

PMID: 40560856
PMCID: PMC12193045
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0323938

Abstract

Previous research has studied the extent to which men are the default members of social groups in terms of memory, categorization, and stereotyping, but not attitudes which is critical because of attitudes' relationship to behavior. Results from our survey (N > 5000) collected via a globally distributed laboratory network in over 40 regions demonstrated that attitudes toward Black people and politicians had a stronger relationship with attitudes toward the men rather than the women of the group. However, attitudes toward White people had a stronger relationship with attitudes toward White women than White men, whereas attitudes toward East Asian people, police officers, and criminals did not have a stronger relationship with attitudes toward either the men or women of each respective group. Regional agreement with traditional gender roles was explored as a potential moderator. These findings have implications for understanding the unique forms of prejudice women face around the world.

Copyright: © 2025 Phills et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

**Fig 1. Plot of correlation differences by group.**
Positive scores indicate attitudes toward the group had a stronger correlation with attitudes toward the men rather than the women of the group. 99.5% confidence intervals calculated using the method outlined by Zou [35].

**Fig 2. Plot of correlational differences for politicians.**
Side by side comparison of how relative attitudes toward politicians correlates with attitudes toward politicians who are women versus men. The sample is the first 2,300 participants to complete the study.

**Fig 3. Plot of correlational differences for police officers.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward police officers correlated with attitudes toward policewomen and policemen. The sample is the first 2,300 participants to complete the study.

**Fig 4. Plot of correlational differences for criminals.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward criminals correlated with attitudes toward women and men who are criminals. The sample is the first 2,300 participants to complete the study.

**Fig 5. Plot of regional attitude differences.**
Regional differences in whether group attitudes are more strongly related to attitudes toward the men or women of the group for (A) attitudes toward politicians, (B) attitudes toward police, and (C) attitudes toward criminals. The maps used in this manuscript were created with the maps package in R, which uses the Natural Earth dataset in the public domain.

**Fig 6. Plot of correlational differences for Black people.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward Black people correlated with attitudes toward Black men and women. The sample is the first 2,300 people (median age = 20, age range 18 to 67) to complete the study that did not identify as Black.

**Fig 7. Plot of correlational differences for East Asian people.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward East Asian people correlated with attitudes toward East Asian men and women. The sample is the first 2,300 people (median age = 20, age range 18 to 67) to complete the study that did not identify as East Asian.

**Fig 8. Plot of correlational differences for East Asian people for non-East Asian participants.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward east Asian people correlated with attitudes toward East Asian men and women. The sample is the 1305 participants (median age = 19, age range 18 to 36) who completed the study in the U.S. and did not identify as East Asian.

**Fig 9. Plot of correlational differences for White people.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward White people correlated with attitudes toward White men and women. The sample is the 2,260 participants (median age = 20, age range 18 to 67) who completed the study and did not identify as White.

**Fig 10. Plot of regional differences in attitudes.**
Regional differences in whether group attitudes are more strongly related to attitudes toward the men or women of the group for (A) attitudes toward Black people, (B) attitudes toward East Asian people, and (C) attitudes toward White people. The maps used in this manuscript were created with the maps package in R, which uses the Natural Earth dataset in the public domain.

**Fig 11. Plot of correlational differences for Black people in women.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward Black people correlates with attitudes toward Black men and women. The sample is the 180 participants (median age = 20, age range 18 to 37) who completed the study and identified as Black women.

**Fig 12. Plot of correlational differences for White people in women.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward White people correlates with attitudes toward White men and women. The sample is the 2,152 participants (median age = 20, age range 18 to 64) who completed the study and identified as White women.

**Fig 13. Plot of correlational differences for East Asian people in women.**
Side by side comparison of how attitudes toward East Asian people correlates with attitudes toward East Asian men and women. The sample is the 485 participants (median age = 20, age range 18 to 42) who completed the study and identified as East Asian women.

See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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Multi-region investigation of 'man' as default in attitudes

Affiliations

Multi-region investigation of 'man' as default in attitudes

Authors

Affiliations

Abstract

Conflict of interest statement

Figures

References

MeSH terms

LinkOut - more resources

Full Text Sources