doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.06.017.
Epub 2025 Jun 23.
Gestational vitamin D concentration and child cognitive development: a longitudinal cohort study in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Program
Melissa M Melough
1
, Monica McGrath
2
, Meredith Palmore
2
, Brent R Collett
3
, Jean M Kerver
4
, Christine W Hockett
5
, Rebecca J Schmidt
6
, Rachel S Kelly
7
, Kristen Lyall
8
, Qi Zhao
9
, Alison E Hipwell
10
, Susan A Korrick
11
, Diane Gilbert-Diamond
12
, Scott T Weiss
7
, Su H Chu
7
, Hooman Mirzakhani
7
, Jennifer M Porter
13
, Sheela Sathyanarayana
14
; ECHO Cohort Consortium
Collaborators,
Affiliations
Collaborators
-
ECHO Cohort Consortium:
P Brian Smith 15 , L Kristin Newby 16 , Linda Adair 17 , Lisa P Jacobson 18 , Diane Catellier 19 , Monica McGrath 18 , Christian Douglas 19 , Priya Duggal 18 , Emily Knapp 18 , Amii Kress 18 , Courtney K Blackwell 20 , Maxwell A Mansolf 20 , Jin-Shei Lai 20 , Emily Ho 20 , David Cella 20 , Richard Gershon 20 , Michelle L Macy 21 , Suman R Das 22 , Jane E Freedman 23 , Simon A Mallal 22 , John A McLean 24 , Ravi V Shah 23 , Meghan H Shilts 22 , Akram N Alshawabkeh 25 , Jose F Cordero 26 , John Meeker 27 , Leonardo Trasande 28 , Carlos A Camargo 29 , Kohei Hasegawa 29 , Zhaozhong Zhu 29 , Ashley F Sullivan 29 , Dana Dabelea 30 , Wei Perng 30 , Traci A Bekelman 30 , Greta Wilkening 30 , Sheryl Magzamen 31 , Brianna F Moore 30 , Anne P Starling 32 , Deborah J Rinehart 33 , Daphne Koinis Mitchell 34 , Viren D'Sa 34 , Sean C L Deoni 35 , Hans-Georg Mueller 36 , Cristiane S Duarte 37 , Catherine Monk 38 , Glorisa Canino 39 , Jonathan Posner 40 , Tenneill Murray 37 , Claudia Lugo-Candelas 37 , Anne L Dunlop 41 , Patricia A Brennan 42 , Christine Hockett 43 , Amy Elliott 44 , Assiamira Ferrara 45 , Lisa A Croen 45 , Monique M Hedderson 45 , John Ainsworth 46 , Leonard B Bacharier 47 , Casper G Bendixsen 48 , James E Gern 49 , Diane R Gold 50 , Tina V Hartert 51 , Daniel J Jackson 49 , Christine C Johnson 52 , Christine L M Joseph 52 , Meyer Kattan 53 , Gurjit K Khurana Hershey 54 , Robert F Lemanske 49 , Susan V Lynch Jr 55 , Rachel L Miller 56 , George T O'Connor 57 , Carole Ober 58 , Dennis Ownby 52 , Katherine Rivera-Spoljaric 59 , Patrick H Ryan 60 , Christine M Seroogy 49 , Anne Marie Singh 49 , Robert A Wood 61 , Edward M Zoratti 62 , Rima Habre 63 , Shohreh Farzan 63 , Frank D Gilliland 63 , Irva Hertz-Picciotto 64 , Deborah H Bennett 65 , Julie B Schweitzer 66 , Rebecca J Schmidt 64 , Janine M LaSalle 67 , Alison E Hipwell 68 , Catherine J Karr 69 , Nicole R Bush 70 , Kaja Z LeWinn 71 , Sheela Sathyanarayana 72 , Qi Zhao 73 , Frances Tylavsky 73 , Kecia N Carroll 74 , Christine T Loftus 75 , Leslie D Leve 76 , Jody M Ganiban 77 , Jenae M Neiderhiser 78 , Scott T Weiss 79 , Augusto A Litonjua 80 , Cindy T McEvoy 81 , Eliot R Spindel 82 , Robert S Tepper 83 , Craig J Newschaffer 84 , Kristen Lyall 85 , Heather E Volk 86 , Rebecca Landa 87 , Sally Ozonoff 88 , Joseph Piven 89 , Heather Hazlett 89 , Juhi Pandey 90 , Robert Schultz 90 , Steven Dager 91 , Kelly Botteron 92 , Daniel Messinger 93 , Wendy Stone 94 , Jennifer Ames 95 , Thomas G O'Connor 96 , Richard K Miller 97 , Emily Oken 98 , Michele R Hacker 99 , Tamarra James-Todd 100 , T Michael O'Shea 101 , Rebecca C Fry 102 , Jean A Frazier 103 , Rachana Singh 104 , Caitlin Rollins 105 , Angela Montgomery 106 , Ruben Vaidya 107 , Robert M Joseph 108 , Lisa K Washburn 109 , Semsa Gogcu 110 , Kelly Bear 111 , Julie V Rollins 101 , Stephen R Hooper 112 , Genevieve Taylor 113 , Wesley Jackson 101 , Amanda Thompson 114 , Julie Daniels 115 , Michelle Hernandez 113 , Kun Lu 116 , Michael Msall 117 , Madeleine Lenski 118 , Rawad Obeid 119 , Steven L Pastyrnak 120 , Elizabeth Jensen 121 , Christina Sakai 122 , Hudson Santos 123 , Jean M Kerver 124 , Nigel Paneth 124 , Charles J Barone 125 , Michael R Elliott 126 , Douglas M Ruden 127 , Chris Fussman 128 , Julie B Herbstman 129 , Amy Margolis 130 , Susan L Schantz 131 , Sarah Dee Geiger 132 , Andrea Aguiar 131 , Karen Tabb 133 , Rita Strakovsky 134 , Tracey Woodruff 135 , Rachel Morello-Frosch 136 , Amy Padula 135 , Joseph B Stanford 137 , Christina A Porucznik 137 , Angelo P Giardino 138 , Rosalind J Wright 139 , Robert O Wright 139 , Brent Collett 140 , Nicole Baumann-Blackmore 49 , Ronald Gangnon 141 , Daniel J Jackson 49 , Chris G McKennan 142 , Jo Wilson 49 , Matt Altman 143 , Judy L Aschner 144 , Annemarie Stroustrup 145 , Stephanie L Merhar 146 , Paul E Moore 147 , Gloria S Pryhuber 148 , Mark Hudak 149 , Ann Marie Reynolds Lyndaker 150 , Andrea L Lampland 151 , Burton Rochelson 152 , Sophia Jan 145 , Matthew J Blitz 152 , Michelle W Katzow 145 , Zenobia Brown 153 , Codruta Chiuzan 154 , Timothy Rafael 152 , Dawnette Lewis 152 , Natalie Meirowitz 152 , Brenda Poindexter 155 , Tebeb Gebretsadik 156 , Sarah Osmundson 157 , Jennifer K Straughen 52 , Amy Eapen 62 , Andrea Cassidy-Bushrow 52 , Ganesa Wegienka 52 , Alex Sitarik 52 , Kim Woodcroft 52 , Audrey Urquhart 52 , Albert Levin 52 , Tisa Johnson-Hooper 125 , Brent Davidson 158 , Tengfei Ma 52 , Emily S Barrett 159 , Martin J Blaser 160 , Maria Gloria Dominguez-Bello 161 , Daniel B Horton 162 , Manuel Jimenez 163 , Todd Rosen 164 , Kristy Palomares 165 , Lyndsay A Avalos 45 , Yeyi Zhu 45 , Kelly J Hunt 166 , Roger B Newman 167 , Michael S Bloom 168 , Mallory H Alkis 167 , James R Roberts 169 , Sunni L Mumford 170 , Heather H Burris 171 , Sara B DeMauro 171 , Lynn M Yee 172 , Aaron Hamvas 173 , Antonia F Olidipo 174 , Andrew S Haddad 174 , Lisa R Eiland 175 , Nicole T Spillane 175 , Kirin N Suri 176 , Stephanie A Fisher 172 , Jeffrey A Goldstein 177 , Leena B Mithal 178 , Raye-Ann O DeRegnier 173 , Nathalie L Maitre 179 , Ruby H N Nguyen 180 , Meghan M JaKa 181 , Abbey C Sidebottom 182 , Michael J Paidas 183 , JoNell E Potter 184 , Natale Ruby 185 , Lunthita Duthely 186 , Arumugam Jayakumar 184 , Karen Young 187 , Isabel Maldonado 188 , Meghan Miller 189 , Jonathan L Slaughter 190 , Sarah A Keim 191 , Courtney D Lynch 192 , Kartik K Venkatesh 192 , Kristina W Whitworth 193 , Elaine Symanski 193 , Thomas F Northrup 194 , Hector Mendez-Figueroa 195 , Ricardo A Mosquera 196 , Margaret R Karagas 197 , Juliette C Madan 198 , Debra M MacKenzie 199 , Johnnye L Lewis 199 , Brandon J Rennie 200 , Bennett L Leventhal 201 , Young Shin Kim 202 , Somer Bishop 202 , Sara S Nozadi 199 , Li Luo 203 , Barry M Lester 204 , Carmen J Marsit 205 , Todd Everson 205 , Cynthia M Loncar 206 , Elisabeth C McGowan 207 , Stephen J Sheinkopf 208 , Brian S Carter 209 , Jennifer Check 210 , Jennifer B Helderman 210 , Charles R Neal 211 , Lynne M Smith 212
Affiliations
- 1 Department of Health Behavior and Nutrition Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States. Electronic address: melough@udel.edu.
- 2 Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States.
- 3 Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States.
- 4 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.
- 5 Department of Pediatrics, University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, SD, United States; Avera Research Institute, Sioux Falls, SD, United States.
- 6 Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, United States.
- 7 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.
- 8 AJ Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
- 9 Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States.
- 10 Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
- 11 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States.
- 12 Departments of Epidemiology, Medicine and Pediatrics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States.
- 13 Department of Pediatrics, Norton Children's and University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, United States.
- 14 Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States; Departments of Pediatrics, Epidemiology, and Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
- 15 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Duke Clinical Research Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
- 16 Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Duke Clinical Research Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
- 17 Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 18 Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 19 Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.
- 20 Department of Medical Social Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 21 Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 22 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 23 Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 24 Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 25 College of Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 26 College of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia; USA.
- 27 Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; USA.
- 28 Departments of Pediatrics and Population Health, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.
- 29 Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 30 Lifecourse Epidemiology of Adiposity and Diabetes (LEAD) Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA.
- 31 Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado School of Public Health, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
- 32 Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 33 Center for Health Systems Research, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, Colorado, USA.
- 34 Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 35 Division of Gender Equality, Maternal, Newborn & Child Health Discovery & Tools Team, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 36 Department of Statistics, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 37 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Columbia University - NYSPI, New York, New York, USA.
- 38 Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Columbia University - NYSPI, New York, New York, USA.
- 39 Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.
- 40 Child & Family Mental Health & Community Psychiatry Division, Duke University School of Medicine, Duke Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
- 41 Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 42 Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 43 Department of Pediatrics, Avera Research Institute; University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Rapid City, South Dakota, USA; Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA.
- 44 Department of Pediatrics, Avera Research Institute, University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA.
- 45 Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, California, USA.
- 46 Centre for Health Informatics, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.
- 47 Department of Pediatrics, Monroe Carell Jr Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 48 National Farm Medicine Center, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA.
- 49 Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
- 50 The Channing Division of Network Medicine; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 51 Division of Pediatric Allergy, Immunology, and Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 52 Department of Public Health Sciences, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 53 Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.
- 54 Division of Asthma Research, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
- 55 Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 56 Department of Medicine; Division of Clinical Immunology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
- 57 Department of Pediatrics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 58 Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 59 Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA.
- 60 Department of Pediatrics and College of Medicine; Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
- 61 Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 62 Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 63 Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
- 64 MIND Institute and Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 65 Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 66 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science and the MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 67 Medical Microbiology and Immunology; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 68 Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 69 Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences; School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 70 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 71 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 72 Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington and Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 73 Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
- 74 Department of Pediatrics, Department of Environmental Medicine & Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
- 75 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences; School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 76 Department of Counseling Psychology and Human Services & Prevention Science Institute, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA.
- 77 Department of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.
- 78 Department of Psychology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 79 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 80 Pediatric Pulmonary Division, Department of Pediatrics, Golisano Children's Hospital, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 81 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA.
- 82 Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon, USA.
- 83 Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
- 84 College of Health and Human Development, Penn State, State College, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 85 AJ Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 86 Mental Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 87 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Autism and Related Disorders, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 88 MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry, University of California Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.
- 89 Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 90 Center for Autism Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 91 Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 92 Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St Louis, Missouri, USA.
- 93 Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 94 Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 95 Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente, Oakland, California, USA.
- 96 Departments of Psychiatry, Neuroscience, Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 97 Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 98 Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 99 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 100 Department of Environmental Health, Harvard Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 101 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 102 Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 103 EK Shriver Center and Psychiatry, UMASS Chan Medical School, Worcster, Massachusetts, USA.
- 104 Department of Pediatrics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 105 Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 106 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
- 107 Department of Pediatrics, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA.
- 108 Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 109 Pediatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
- 110 Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine; Wake Forest University School of Medicine/Atrium Health Wake Forest, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
- 111 Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, ECU Health, Greenville, North Carolina, USA.
- 112 Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 113 Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 114 Department of Anthropology, Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 115 Epidemiology and Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 116 Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 117 Kennedy Research Center on Intellectual and Neurodevelopmental Disabilities, University of Chicago Medicine: Comer Children's Hospital, Chicago Illinois, USA.
- 118 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 119 Pediatrics, Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, Michigan, USA.
- 120 Pediatrics, Corewell Health, Helen DeVos Children's Hospital, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA.
- 121 Epidemiology and Prevention, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
- 122 Pediatrics, Mass General Hospital for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 123 Dean's Office Graduate School, School of Nursing and Health Studies, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA.
- 124 Departments of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, and Pediatrics & Human Development, Michigan State University, College of Human Medicine, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 125 Department of Pediatrics, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 126 Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- 127 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (IEHS), C.S. Mott Center for Human Health and Development, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 128 Lifecourse Epidemiology and Genomics Division, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS), Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 129 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York, USA.
- 130 Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.
- 131 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
- 132 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
- 133 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; Department of Social Work, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
- 134 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 135 Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 136 Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management and School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA.
- 137 Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
- 138 Department of Pediatrics, Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
- 139 Department of Environmental Medicine & Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
- 140 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 141 Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
- 142 Department of Statistics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 143 Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 144 Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine; Center for Discovery and Innovation, Bronx, New York, USA; Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 145 Department of Pediatrics, Northwell Health, Cohen Children's Medical Center, and the Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra / Northwell, New Hyde Park, New York, USA.
- 146 Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
- 147 Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 148 Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 149 Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, USA.
- 150 Department of Pediatrics, University of Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, New York, USA.
- 151 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 152 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwell Health and the Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra / Northwell, New Hyde Park, New York, USA.
- 153 Department of Science Education, Northwell Health and the Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra / Northwell, New Hyde Park, New York, USA.
- 154 Institute of Health System Science, Northwell Health, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Manhasset, New York, USA.
- 155 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 156 Department of Biostatistics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 157 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 158 Department of Women's Health, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 159 Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA.
- 160 Center for Advanced Biotechnology & Medicine, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA.
- 161 Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 162 Department of Pediatrics, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 163 Departments of Pediatrics, Family Medicine, and Community Health, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 164 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 165 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Saint Peter's University Hospital, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 166 Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
- 167 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
- 168 Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA.
- 169 Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
- 170 Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 171 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 172 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 173 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 174 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 175 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 176 Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 177 Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 178 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 179 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Cerebral Palsy Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia, USA and New York, New York, USA.
- 180 Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 181 Division of Research & Evaluation, HealthPartners Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 182 Care Delivery Research, Allina Health, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 183 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 184 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 185 Mailman Center for Child Development, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 186 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences and Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 187 Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 188 School of Nursing and Health Studies, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 189 Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences; MIND Institute, University of California Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.
- 190 Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute and Division of Neonatology, Nationwide Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
- 191 Center for Biobehavioral Health, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
- 192 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, College of Medicine and Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
- 193 Center for Precision Environmental Health and Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 194 Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 195 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 196 Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 197 Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA.
- 198 Departments of Psychiatry, Pediatrics & Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA.
- 199 Community Environmental Health Program, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
- 200 Center for Development and Disability, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
- 201 Community Environmental Health Program, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences UNM, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center; University of Chicago, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA; Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 202 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 203 Department of Internal Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
- 204 Department of Pediatrics, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 205 Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 206 Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 207 Department of Pediatrics, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 208 Department of Pediatrics, Thompson Center for Autism & Neurodevelopment, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA.
- 209 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Mercy-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA.
- 210 Department of Pediatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston, Salem North Carolina, USA.
- 211 Department of Pediatrics, University of Hawaii John A Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.
- 212 Department of Pediatrics, UCLA Clinical and Translational Science Institute at The Lundquist Institute, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA.
- PMID: 40562362
- DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.06.017
Item in Clipboard
Gestational vitamin D concentration and child cognitive development: a longitudinal cohort study in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Program
Melissa M Melough et al.
Am J Clin Nutr.
2025 Aug.
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Format
doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.06.017.
Epub 2025 Jun 23.
Authors
Melissa M Melough
1
, Monica McGrath
2
, Meredith Palmore
2
, Brent R Collett
3
, Jean M Kerver
4
, Christine W Hockett
5
, Rebecca J Schmidt
6
, Rachel S Kelly
7
, Kristen Lyall
8
, Qi Zhao
9
, Alison E Hipwell
10
, Susan A Korrick
11
, Diane Gilbert-Diamond
12
, Scott T Weiss
7
, Su H Chu
7
, Hooman Mirzakhani
7
, Jennifer M Porter
13
, Sheela Sathyanarayana
14
; ECHO Cohort Consortium
Collaborators
-
ECHO Cohort Consortium:
P Brian Smith 15 , L Kristin Newby 16 , Linda Adair 17 , Lisa P Jacobson 18 , Diane Catellier 19 , Monica McGrath 18 , Christian Douglas 19 , Priya Duggal 18 , Emily Knapp 18 , Amii Kress 18 , Courtney K Blackwell 20 , Maxwell A Mansolf 20 , Jin-Shei Lai 20 , Emily Ho 20 , David Cella 20 , Richard Gershon 20 , Michelle L Macy 21 , Suman R Das 22 , Jane E Freedman 23 , Simon A Mallal 22 , John A McLean 24 , Ravi V Shah 23 , Meghan H Shilts 22 , Akram N Alshawabkeh 25 , Jose F Cordero 26 , John Meeker 27 , Leonardo Trasande 28 , Carlos A Camargo 29 , Kohei Hasegawa 29 , Zhaozhong Zhu 29 , Ashley F Sullivan 29 , Dana Dabelea 30 , Wei Perng 30 , Traci A Bekelman 30 , Greta Wilkening 30 , Sheryl Magzamen 31 , Brianna F Moore 30 , Anne P Starling 32 , Deborah J Rinehart 33 , Daphne Koinis Mitchell 34 , Viren D'Sa 34 , Sean C L Deoni 35 , Hans-Georg Mueller 36 , Cristiane S Duarte 37 , Catherine Monk 38 , Glorisa Canino 39 , Jonathan Posner 40 , Tenneill Murray 37 , Claudia Lugo-Candelas 37 , Anne L Dunlop 41 , Patricia A Brennan 42 , Christine Hockett 43 , Amy Elliott 44 , Assiamira Ferrara 45 , Lisa A Croen 45 , Monique M Hedderson 45 , John Ainsworth 46 , Leonard B Bacharier 47 , Casper G Bendixsen 48 , James E Gern 49 , Diane R Gold 50 , Tina V Hartert 51 , Daniel J Jackson 49 , Christine C Johnson 52 , Christine L M Joseph 52 , Meyer Kattan 53 , Gurjit K Khurana Hershey 54 , Robert F Lemanske 49 , Susan V Lynch Jr 55 , Rachel L Miller 56 , George T O'Connor 57 , Carole Ober 58 , Dennis Ownby 52 , Katherine Rivera-Spoljaric 59 , Patrick H Ryan 60 , Christine M Seroogy 49 , Anne Marie Singh 49 , Robert A Wood 61 , Edward M Zoratti 62 , Rima Habre 63 , Shohreh Farzan 63 , Frank D Gilliland 63 , Irva Hertz-Picciotto 64 , Deborah H Bennett 65 , Julie B Schweitzer 66 , Rebecca J Schmidt 64 , Janine M LaSalle 67 , Alison E Hipwell 68 , Catherine J Karr 69 , Nicole R Bush 70 , Kaja Z LeWinn 71 , Sheela Sathyanarayana 72 , Qi Zhao 73 , Frances Tylavsky 73 , Kecia N Carroll 74 , Christine T Loftus 75 , Leslie D Leve 76 , Jody M Ganiban 77 , Jenae M Neiderhiser 78 , Scott T Weiss 79 , Augusto A Litonjua 80 , Cindy T McEvoy 81 , Eliot R Spindel 82 , Robert S Tepper 83 , Craig J Newschaffer 84 , Kristen Lyall 85 , Heather E Volk 86 , Rebecca Landa 87 , Sally Ozonoff 88 , Joseph Piven 89 , Heather Hazlett 89 , Juhi Pandey 90 , Robert Schultz 90 , Steven Dager 91 , Kelly Botteron 92 , Daniel Messinger 93 , Wendy Stone 94 , Jennifer Ames 95 , Thomas G O'Connor 96 , Richard K Miller 97 , Emily Oken 98 , Michele R Hacker 99 , Tamarra James-Todd 100 , T Michael O'Shea 101 , Rebecca C Fry 102 , Jean A Frazier 103 , Rachana Singh 104 , Caitlin Rollins 105 , Angela Montgomery 106 , Ruben Vaidya 107 , Robert M Joseph 108 , Lisa K Washburn 109 , Semsa Gogcu 110 , Kelly Bear 111 , Julie V Rollins 101 , Stephen R Hooper 112 , Genevieve Taylor 113 , Wesley Jackson 101 , Amanda Thompson 114 , Julie Daniels 115 , Michelle Hernandez 113 , Kun Lu 116 , Michael Msall 117 , Madeleine Lenski 118 , Rawad Obeid 119 , Steven L Pastyrnak 120 , Elizabeth Jensen 121 , Christina Sakai 122 , Hudson Santos 123 , Jean M Kerver 124 , Nigel Paneth 124 , Charles J Barone 125 , Michael R Elliott 126 , Douglas M Ruden 127 , Chris Fussman 128 , Julie B Herbstman 129 , Amy Margolis 130 , Susan L Schantz 131 , Sarah Dee Geiger 132 , Andrea Aguiar 131 , Karen Tabb 133 , Rita Strakovsky 134 , Tracey Woodruff 135 , Rachel Morello-Frosch 136 , Amy Padula 135 , Joseph B Stanford 137 , Christina A Porucznik 137 , Angelo P Giardino 138 , Rosalind J Wright 139 , Robert O Wright 139 , Brent Collett 140 , Nicole Baumann-Blackmore 49 , Ronald Gangnon 141 , Daniel J Jackson 49 , Chris G McKennan 142 , Jo Wilson 49 , Matt Altman 143 , Judy L Aschner 144 , Annemarie Stroustrup 145 , Stephanie L Merhar 146 , Paul E Moore 147 , Gloria S Pryhuber 148 , Mark Hudak 149 , Ann Marie Reynolds Lyndaker 150 , Andrea L Lampland 151 , Burton Rochelson 152 , Sophia Jan 145 , Matthew J Blitz 152 , Michelle W Katzow 145 , Zenobia Brown 153 , Codruta Chiuzan 154 , Timothy Rafael 152 , Dawnette Lewis 152 , Natalie Meirowitz 152 , Brenda Poindexter 155 , Tebeb Gebretsadik 156 , Sarah Osmundson 157 , Jennifer K Straughen 52 , Amy Eapen 62 , Andrea Cassidy-Bushrow 52 , Ganesa Wegienka 52 , Alex Sitarik 52 , Kim Woodcroft 52 , Audrey Urquhart 52 , Albert Levin 52 , Tisa Johnson-Hooper 125 , Brent Davidson 158 , Tengfei Ma 52 , Emily S Barrett 159 , Martin J Blaser 160 , Maria Gloria Dominguez-Bello 161 , Daniel B Horton 162 , Manuel Jimenez 163 , Todd Rosen 164 , Kristy Palomares 165 , Lyndsay A Avalos 45 , Yeyi Zhu 45 , Kelly J Hunt 166 , Roger B Newman 167 , Michael S Bloom 168 , Mallory H Alkis 167 , James R Roberts 169 , Sunni L Mumford 170 , Heather H Burris 171 , Sara B DeMauro 171 , Lynn M Yee 172 , Aaron Hamvas 173 , Antonia F Olidipo 174 , Andrew S Haddad 174 , Lisa R Eiland 175 , Nicole T Spillane 175 , Kirin N Suri 176 , Stephanie A Fisher 172 , Jeffrey A Goldstein 177 , Leena B Mithal 178 , Raye-Ann O DeRegnier 173 , Nathalie L Maitre 179 , Ruby H N Nguyen 180 , Meghan M JaKa 181 , Abbey C Sidebottom 182 , Michael J Paidas 183 , JoNell E Potter 184 , Natale Ruby 185 , Lunthita Duthely 186 , Arumugam Jayakumar 184 , Karen Young 187 , Isabel Maldonado 188 , Meghan Miller 189 , Jonathan L Slaughter 190 , Sarah A Keim 191 , Courtney D Lynch 192 , Kartik K Venkatesh 192 , Kristina W Whitworth 193 , Elaine Symanski 193 , Thomas F Northrup 194 , Hector Mendez-Figueroa 195 , Ricardo A Mosquera 196 , Margaret R Karagas 197 , Juliette C Madan 198 , Debra M MacKenzie 199 , Johnnye L Lewis 199 , Brandon J Rennie 200 , Bennett L Leventhal 201 , Young Shin Kim 202 , Somer Bishop 202 , Sara S Nozadi 199 , Li Luo 203 , Barry M Lester 204 , Carmen J Marsit 205 , Todd Everson 205 , Cynthia M Loncar 206 , Elisabeth C McGowan 207 , Stephen J Sheinkopf 208 , Brian S Carter 209 , Jennifer Check 210 , Jennifer B Helderman 210 , Charles R Neal 211 , Lynne M Smith 212
Affiliations
- 1 Department of Health Behavior and Nutrition Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States. Electronic address: melough@udel.edu.
- 2 Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States.
- 3 Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States.
- 4 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States.
- 5 Department of Pediatrics, University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, SD, United States; Avera Research Institute, Sioux Falls, SD, United States.
- 6 Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, United States.
- 7 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.
- 8 AJ Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
- 9 Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States.
- 10 Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
- 11 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States.
- 12 Departments of Epidemiology, Medicine and Pediatrics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States.
- 13 Department of Pediatrics, Norton Children's and University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, United States.
- 14 Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States; Departments of Pediatrics, Epidemiology, and Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
- 15 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Duke Clinical Research Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
- 16 Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Duke Clinical Research Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
- 17 Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 18 Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 19 Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.
- 20 Department of Medical Social Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 21 Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 22 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 23 Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 24 Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 25 College of Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 26 College of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia; USA.
- 27 Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; USA.
- 28 Departments of Pediatrics and Population Health, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.
- 29 Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 30 Lifecourse Epidemiology of Adiposity and Diabetes (LEAD) Center, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA.
- 31 Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado School of Public Health, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
- 32 Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 33 Center for Health Systems Research, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, Colorado, USA.
- 34 Department of Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 35 Division of Gender Equality, Maternal, Newborn & Child Health Discovery & Tools Team, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 36 Department of Statistics, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 37 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Columbia University - NYSPI, New York, New York, USA.
- 38 Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Columbia University - NYSPI, New York, New York, USA.
- 39 Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.
- 40 Child & Family Mental Health & Community Psychiatry Division, Duke University School of Medicine, Duke Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
- 41 Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 42 Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 43 Department of Pediatrics, Avera Research Institute; University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Rapid City, South Dakota, USA; Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA.
- 44 Department of Pediatrics, Avera Research Institute, University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA.
- 45 Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, California, USA.
- 46 Centre for Health Informatics, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.
- 47 Department of Pediatrics, Monroe Carell Jr Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 48 National Farm Medicine Center, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA.
- 49 Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
- 50 The Channing Division of Network Medicine; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 51 Division of Pediatric Allergy, Immunology, and Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 52 Department of Public Health Sciences, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 53 Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.
- 54 Division of Asthma Research, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
- 55 Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 56 Department of Medicine; Division of Clinical Immunology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
- 57 Department of Pediatrics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 58 Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 59 Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, USA.
- 60 Department of Pediatrics and College of Medicine; Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
- 61 Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 62 Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 63 Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
- 64 MIND Institute and Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 65 Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 66 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science and the MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 67 Medical Microbiology and Immunology; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
- 68 Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 69 Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences; School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 70 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 71 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 72 Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington and Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 73 Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
- 74 Department of Pediatrics, Department of Environmental Medicine & Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
- 75 Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences; School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 76 Department of Counseling Psychology and Human Services & Prevention Science Institute, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA.
- 77 Department of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.
- 78 Department of Psychology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 79 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 80 Pediatric Pulmonary Division, Department of Pediatrics, Golisano Children's Hospital, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 81 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA.
- 82 Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, Oregon, USA.
- 83 Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
- 84 College of Health and Human Development, Penn State, State College, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 85 AJ Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 86 Mental Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 87 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Autism and Related Disorders, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
- 88 MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry, University of California Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.
- 89 Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 90 Center for Autism Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 91 Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 92 Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St Louis, Missouri, USA.
- 93 Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 94 Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 95 Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente, Oakland, California, USA.
- 96 Departments of Psychiatry, Neuroscience, Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 97 Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 98 Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 99 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 100 Department of Environmental Health, Harvard Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 101 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 102 Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 103 EK Shriver Center and Psychiatry, UMASS Chan Medical School, Worcster, Massachusetts, USA.
- 104 Department of Pediatrics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 105 Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 106 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
- 107 Department of Pediatrics, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA.
- 108 Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 109 Pediatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
- 110 Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine; Wake Forest University School of Medicine/Atrium Health Wake Forest, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
- 111 Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, ECU Health, Greenville, North Carolina, USA.
- 112 Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 113 Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 114 Department of Anthropology, Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 115 Epidemiology and Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 116 Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- 117 Kennedy Research Center on Intellectual and Neurodevelopmental Disabilities, University of Chicago Medicine: Comer Children's Hospital, Chicago Illinois, USA.
- 118 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 119 Pediatrics, Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, Michigan, USA.
- 120 Pediatrics, Corewell Health, Helen DeVos Children's Hospital, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA.
- 121 Epidemiology and Prevention, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.
- 122 Pediatrics, Mass General Hospital for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
- 123 Dean's Office Graduate School, School of Nursing and Health Studies, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA.
- 124 Departments of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, and Pediatrics & Human Development, Michigan State University, College of Human Medicine, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 125 Department of Pediatrics, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 126 Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- 127 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (IEHS), C.S. Mott Center for Human Health and Development, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 128 Lifecourse Epidemiology and Genomics Division, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS), Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 129 Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York, USA.
- 130 Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA.
- 131 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
- 132 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
- 133 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology; Department of Social Work, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
- 134 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
- 135 Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 136 Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management and School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA.
- 137 Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
- 138 Department of Pediatrics, Spencer Fox Eccles School of Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
- 139 Department of Environmental Medicine & Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
- 140 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 141 Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
- 142 Department of Statistics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 143 Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
- 144 Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine; Center for Discovery and Innovation, Bronx, New York, USA; Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 145 Department of Pediatrics, Northwell Health, Cohen Children's Medical Center, and the Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra / Northwell, New Hyde Park, New York, USA.
- 146 Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
- 147 Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 148 Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA.
- 149 Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, USA.
- 150 Department of Pediatrics, University of Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, New York, USA.
- 151 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 152 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwell Health and the Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra / Northwell, New Hyde Park, New York, USA.
- 153 Department of Science Education, Northwell Health and the Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra / Northwell, New Hyde Park, New York, USA.
- 154 Institute of Health System Science, Northwell Health, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Manhasset, New York, USA.
- 155 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 156 Department of Biostatistics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 157 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
- 158 Department of Women's Health, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
- 159 Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA.
- 160 Center for Advanced Biotechnology & Medicine, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA.
- 161 Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology & Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 162 Department of Pediatrics, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 163 Departments of Pediatrics, Family Medicine, and Community Health, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 164 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 165 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Saint Peter's University Hospital, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
- 166 Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
- 167 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
- 168 Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA.
- 169 Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
- 170 Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 171 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- 172 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 173 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 174 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 175 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 176 Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey, USA.
- 177 Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 178 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 179 Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Cerebral Palsy Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia, USA and New York, New York, USA.
- 180 Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 181 Division of Research & Evaluation, HealthPartners Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 182 Care Delivery Research, Allina Health, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
- 183 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 184 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 185 Mailman Center for Child Development, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 186 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences and Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 187 Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 188 School of Nursing and Health Studies, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA.
- 189 Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences; MIND Institute, University of California Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.
- 190 Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute and Division of Neonatology, Nationwide Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
- 191 Center for Biobehavioral Health, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
- 192 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, College of Medicine and Division of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
- 193 Center for Precision Environmental Health and Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 194 Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 195 Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 196 Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
- 197 Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA.
- 198 Departments of Psychiatry, Pediatrics & Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA.
- 199 Community Environmental Health Program, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
- 200 Center for Development and Disability, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
- 201 Community Environmental Health Program, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences UNM, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center; University of Chicago, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA; Chicago, Illinois, USA.
- 202 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
- 203 Department of Internal Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
- 204 Department of Pediatrics, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 205 Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- 206 Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 207 Department of Pediatrics, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
- 208 Department of Pediatrics, Thompson Center for Autism & Neurodevelopment, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA.
- 209 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Mercy-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA.
- 210 Department of Pediatrics, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston, Salem North Carolina, USA.
- 211 Department of Pediatrics, University of Hawaii John A Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.
- 212 Department of Pediatrics, UCLA Clinical and Translational Science Institute at The Lundquist Institute, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA.
- PMID: 40562362
- DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.06.017
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Abstract
Background: Low vitamin D concentrations are common-especially among those with darker pigmented skin-and are frequently observed during pregnancy. Given its important role in brain development, inadequate gestational vitamin D may impair child cognitive development.
Objectives: We aimed to evaluate associations of gestational vitamin D concentrations with childhood cognitive scores, explore whether this relationship differs by self-reported race, and examine sensitive exposure windows within pregnancy.
Methods: This prospective cohort study included 912 mother-child dyads (37.3% Black, 52.3% White) from the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes program. 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations were measured in prenatal or cord blood collected between 4 and 42 wk gestation (median: 23 wk). Children's cognition was assessed at ages 7-12 y using the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery. Relationships of 25(OH)D and cognitive scores were examined using mixed-effects linear models adjusted for confounders. Potential sensitive periods were explored by estimating population 25(OH)D patterns across gestation for varying levels of the cognitive outcomes.
Results: Mean gestational 25(OH)D was 23.8 ng/mL (SD: 10.0 ng/mL). Each 10-ng/mL increase was associated with greater overall (β: 1.11; 95% CI: 0.08, 2.14) and fluid cognition scores (β: 1.21; 95% CI: 0.07, 2.34), but not crystallized cognition. Although these associations were not significantly modified by self-reported race, associations appeared stronger in children of Black mothers (β: 2.99; 95% CI: 0.82, 5.16) than those in non-Black mothers (β: 0.43; 95% CI: -0.93, 1.78) for fluid cognition. Early pregnancy may be a critical exposure period, evidenced by the greatest divergence in the pattern of 25(OH)D during this period between the mothers of children in the 90th and those in the 10th percentiles of cognitive outcomes.
Conclusions: Gestational 25(OH)D concentrations were positively associated with cognitive scores, especially in children of Black mothers. Given higher deficiency risk among Black women, vitamin D repletion before or in early pregnancy may be an important strategy for reducing racial disparities in child neurodevelopment.
Keywords: childhood cognitive development; fluid cognition; prenatal nutrition; racial health disparities; vitamin D.
Copyright © 2025 American Society for Nutrition. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Conflict of interest statement
Conflicts of interest The authors report no conflicts of interest.
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