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Review
. 2025 May 28;15(6):581.
doi: 10.3390/brainsci15060581.

The Diagnostic and Prognostic Role of Biomarkers in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: An Umbrella Meta-Analysis

Ioannis Mavroudis  1   2 , Foivos Petridis  2 , Dimitrios Kazis  2 , Alin Ciobica  3   4   5   6 , Gabriel Dăscălescu  3   4 , Antoneta Dacia Petroaie  7 , Irina Dobrin  7 , Otilia Novac  7 , Ioana Vata  8 , Bogdan Novac  7
Affiliations
Review

The Diagnostic and Prognostic Role of Biomarkers in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: An Umbrella Meta-Analysis

Ioannis Mavroudis et al. Brain Sci. .

Abstract

Background: Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), commonly known as concussion, is a major public health issue characterized by subtle neuronal damage that traditional imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) often fail to detect. Fluid biomarkers have emerged as promising diagnostic and prognostic tools for mTBI.

Objectives: This umbrella meta-analysis aims to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy and clinical utility of the key fluid biomarkers, S100B, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCH-L1, neurofilament light chain (NfL)) and tau protein, in detecting mTBI and to clarify their roles as screening, confirmatory, and complementary indicators.

Methods: A systematic review was performed using PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane to identify the published meta-analyses that assessed the biomarkers in mTBI. Sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic odds ratios were then calculated using random-effects models. Heterogeneity was evaluated with the I2 statistic, and publication bias was assessed via funnel plots. The results of S100B demonstrated high sensitivity (91.6%) but low specificity (42.4%), making it an effective rule-out biomarker to minimize unnecessary CT scans. In contrast, GFAP exhibited moderate sensitivity (84.5%) with improved specificity (61.0%), supporting its role in confirming mTBI diagnoses. UCH-L1 revealed a sensitivity of 86.7% alongside low specificity (37.3%), indicating its potential as a complementary marker. Additionally, the NfL levels were notably elevated in sports-related concussions, while the diagnostic utility of tau protein remains inconclusive due to limited available data.

Conclusions: The findings underscore the clinical promise of fluid biomarkers in the management of mTBI. S100B and GFAP are particularly valuable as screening and confirmatory markers, respectively. Nonetheless, further standardization of biomarker thresholds and additional longitudinal studies are necessary to validate the roles of UCH-L1, NfL, and Tau protein. The integration of these biomarkers into a multimodal diagnostic panel may enhance mTBI detection accuracy and facilitate improved patient stratification and management.

Keywords: GFAP; S100B; Tau protein; UCH-L1; biomarkers; concussion; diagnostic accuracy; meta-analysis; mild traumatic brain injury; neurofilament light chain; traumatic brain injury detection.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
PRISMA flowchart (designed according to the guidelines from [21] and the PRISMA 2020 statement website).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Summary ROC curve for GFAP.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Summary ROC curve for UCH-L1.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Summary ROC curve for S100B.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Summary ROC curve for tau protein.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Summary ROC curve for NfL.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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