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Review
. 2025 May 29;18(6):820.
doi: 10.3390/ph18060820.

A Review on Biomedical Applications of Plant Extract-Mediated Metallic Ag, Au, and ZnO Nanoparticles and Future Prospects for Their Combination with Graphitic Carbon Nitride

Priyanka Panchal  1 , Protima Rauwel  2 , Satya Pal Nehra  3 , Priyanka Singh  4 , Mamta Karla  5 , Glemarie Hermosa  1 , Erwan Rauwel  1
Affiliations
Review

A Review on Biomedical Applications of Plant Extract-Mediated Metallic Ag, Au, and ZnO Nanoparticles and Future Prospects for Their Combination with Graphitic Carbon Nitride

Priyanka Panchal et al. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). .

Abstract

Since the publication of the 12 principles of green chemistry in 1998 by Paul Anastas and John Warner, the green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles has emerged as an eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to conventional chemical methods. Plant-based synthesis utilizes natural extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents, minimizing harmful chemicals and toxic by-products. Ag nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) exhibit strong antibacterial activity; Au nanoparticles (Au-NPs) are seen as a promising carrier for drug delivery and diagnostics because of their easy functionalization and biocompatibility; and ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs), on the other hand, produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that kill microorganisms effectively. These nanoparticles also demonstrate antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals, reducing oxidative stress, and preventing degenerative diseases. Green syntheses based on plant extracts enhance biocompatibility and therapeutic efficacy, making them suitable for antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant applications. Applying a similar "green synthesis" for advanced nanostructures like graphitic carbon nitride (GCN) is an environmentally friendly alternative to the traditional ways of doing things. GCN exhibits exceptional photocatalytic activity, pollutant degradation efficiency, and electronic properties, with applications in environmental remediation, energy storage, and biomedicine. This review highlights the potential of green-synthesized hybrid nanocomposites combining nanoparticles and GCN as sustainable solutions for biomedical and environmental challenges. The review also highlights the need for the creation of a database using a machine learning process that will enable providing a clear vision of all the progress accomplished till now and identify the most promising plant extracts that should be used for targeted applications.

Keywords: antimicrobial activity; antioxidant activity; cytotoxicity; gold nanoparticles; graphitic carbon nitrides; green synthesis; nanocomposite; silver nanoparticles; zinc oxide nanoparticles.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Different methods used for metallic nanoparticles synthesis [22].
Figure 2
Figure 2
Process and mechanism of plant extract-synthesized nanoparticles.
Figure 3
Figure 3
UV-vis analysis of plant extract-synthesized Ag-NPs (a) [21]; Au-NPs (b) [20]; and ZnO-NPs (c) [130].
Figure 4
Figure 4
FTIR analysis of plant extract-synthesized Ag-NPs (a) [55]; Au-NPs (b) [32]; and ZnO-NPs (c) [130].
Figure 5
Figure 5
XRD analysis of plant extract-synthesized Ag-NPs (a) [21]; Au-NPs (b) [20]; and ZnO-NPs (c) [29].
Figure 6
Figure 6
(I) SEM and TEM studies of plant extract-synthesized Ag-NPs ((a) [115], (d) [4]); Au-NPs ((b) [25], (e) [7]); and ZnO-NPs ((c) [94], (f) [90]). (II) EDS, zeta Potential, and DLS analysis of plant extract-synthesized Ag-NPs ((a) [4], (d) [21], (g) [100]); Au-NPs ((b) [7], (e) [20], (h) [6]); and ZnO-NPs ((c) [54], (f) [29], (i) [130]).
Figure 7
Figure 7
Reported antibacterial (a) and anticancer (b) mechanisms of plant extract-mediated NPs [19,135].
Figure 8
Figure 8
Overview of plant-based GCN nanoparticles formation.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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