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. 2025 Jul 1;15(1):21773.
doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-09037-4.

Oxidative potential of PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 collected in car and tram tunnels to analyse their impact on public health

Rakshit Jakhar  1 , Katarzyna Styszko  2 , Lucyna Samek  3 , Katarzyna Szramowiat-Sala  1
Affiliations

Oxidative potential of PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 collected in car and tram tunnels to analyse their impact on public health

Rakshit Jakhar et al. Sci Rep. .

Abstract

Airborne particulate matter (PM) is a major environmental health risk, partly due to its oxidative potential (OP), which reflects its ability to generate reactive oxygen species. This study evaluates the OP of PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 fractions collected in car and tram tunnels in Krakow, Poland, using ascorbic acid (AA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) depletion assays. PM samples were collected during 2016 and analysed for organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), inorganic ions (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+, NO3-, NO2-, Cl-, and SO42-), and metals (Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Br, Sr, Rb, Pb). PM concentrations ranged from 8 to 298 µg/m3 in the car tunnel and 31 to 127 µg/m3 in the tram tunnel. The depletion rates of AA and GSH varied by PM size fraction and tunnel type. Significant positive correlations were observed between OP indicators and redox-active metals, bromine, OC, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the tram tunnel. In the car tunnel, stronger associations were found with inorganic ions. The strength of correlations was classified as strong, moderate, or weak to aid interpretation. Our findings highlight differences in the chemical drivers of OP between traffic and tram-related environments, suggesting that PM from combustion processes exerts greater oxidative stress potential than PM influenced by secondary inorganic aerosols. Even short exposure to PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 caused substantial antioxidant depletion, indicating potential respiratory health impacts. This study emphasises the importance of considering PM chemical composition, beyond mass concentration alone, when evaluating its health effects.

Keywords: Air pollution; Airborne particulate matter toxicity; Antioxidants; Environmental pollution; Heavy metals; Trace elements.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Antioxidants’ chemical structures (according to the PubChem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/).
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Location of the sampling sites in the city. Inserted photos illustrate the installation of the low-volume air sampler in the road tunnel. (Source: author’s own work, based on https://www.google.pl/earth/ (last access: 23 Feb 2024). Map data for the location of sites: Imagery ©2025 Google, Imagery ©2025 Airbus, CNES / Airbus, MGGP Aero, Maxar Technologies, Map data ©2025 Google Poland (https://earth.google.com/web/@50.06907359,19.94921402,211.18645308a,0d,60y,260.69364482 h,85.69120025t,0r/data=IhoKFndKSXRjYVc3aVVuU2NRRmE4aGoyUncQAjoDCgEw).
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
The comparison of mass concentrations of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 between traffic monitoring station Al. Krasinskiego and sampling sites (car and tram tunnels).
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
The variations of oxidative potential for ascorbic acid (OPAA) and glutathione (OPGSH) of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 fractions and mass concentrations of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 collected in day, night and 24 h in car and tram tunnels.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
The variations of oxidative potential for ascorbic acid (OPAA) and glutathione (OPGSH) of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 fractions and mass concentrations of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 collected in day, night and 24 h in car and tram tunnels.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Depletion of ascorbic acid (AA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) in contact with PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 fractions in RTLF solution, depending on the contact time in car and tram tunnel.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Depletion of ascorbic acid (AA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) in contact with PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 fractions in RTLF solution, depending on the contact time in car and tram tunnel.
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