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. 2025 Jul 1;25(1):1067.
doi: 10.1186/s12885-025-14474-5.

Individual and community-level determinants of cervical cancer screening among Kenyan women: a multilevel analysis of a Kenya demographic and health surveys 2022

Beminate Lemma Seifu #  1 , Angwach Abrham Asnake  2 , Teshale Belayneh  3 , Tesfahun Hailemariam #  4   5
Affiliations

Individual and community-level determinants of cervical cancer screening among Kenyan women: a multilevel analysis of a Kenya demographic and health surveys 2022

Beminate Lemma Seifu et al. BMC Cancer. .

Abstract

Background: Though studies reported factors determining cervical cancer screening, investigating community-level determinants was limited and not conclusive. This study included both individual- and community-level indicators to investigate factors affecting cervical cancer screening nationwide in Kenyan reproductive-age women.

Methods: The 2022 Kenyan Demography and Health Survey data was used for the study. A total of 16,716 reproductive-age women were included in the analysis. A multilevel analysis using generalized linear mixed models with the log-binomial function was applied to examine the association between individual- and community-level factors with cervical cancer screening. The goodness of a fit model was identified by using deviance, and the model with the lowest deviance was considered as the best-fitted model. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with its 95% confidence interval (CI) at p-value < 0.05 was used to declare significantly associated factors with women's cervical cancer screening.

Results: The pooled prevalence of cervical cancer screening in Kenya was 7.40% (95% CI: 7.02%, 7.78%). Women's age, marital status, educational status, wealth index, employment status, media exposure, parity, contraceptive use, visited health facility last 12 months, self-reported sexually transmitted disease, and geographical zone were significantly associated with cervical cancer screening.

Conclusions: Policies should give emphasis to community-based education, health insurance coverage to overcome the financial burden of the community, create opportunities for women`s employment, strengthen media exposure to educate women, and increase the coverage of contraceptive use. Moreover, infrastructure accessibility and awareness creation on the benefits of facility visits and medical checkups could improve cervical cancer screening in Kenya.

Keywords: Cervical cancer; Cervical cancer screening; Kenya; Kenya demographic and health surveys; Multilevel analysis.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: All data were obtained from the 2022 KDHS. Informed consent was obtained from each respondent before the interviews. Procedures and questionnaires for standard DHS surveys have been reviewed and approved by the ICF International Institutional Review Board (IRB). We obtained approval to use the data from the DHS repository, http://www.dhsprogram.com. The original KDHS protocol was reviewed and approved by the Kenyan Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) Ethical review committee, affiliated with the Kenyan Medical Research Institute. The study adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
The pooled prevalence of cervical cancer screening among RAW in Kenya
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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